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William  Popper 


JUDAISM 

AND 

THE  SCIENCE  OF  RELIGION 


SOME   CHAPTERS 


JUDAISM 


THE    SCIENCE    OF    RELIGION 


Rabbi  LOUIS  GROSSMANN,  D.D. 


NEW   YORK    AND   LONDON 

G.   P.    PUTNAM'S    SONS 

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COPYRIGHT   BY 

LOUIS  GROSSMANN 


Press  of 

G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons 

New  York 


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DEDICATED   TO 

REV.  DR.  I.  M.  WISE 

PRESIDENT   OF   THE    HEBREW    UNION    COLLEGE 

AS   A  HUMBLE  TRIBUTE 

AT   THE   CELEBRATION   OF   THE 

SEVENTIETH   YEAR   OF   HIS   NOBLE  LIFE 

BY    HIS    GRATEFUL    PUPIL 


905110 


PREFACE. 

Religion  is  the  truth  that  absorbs  all  other 
truths.  It  is  the  highest  synthesis,  the  science 
of  all  sciences.  All  attainments  are  subservient 
to  the  purposes  of  progressing  culture.  The 
aggregate  experiences  of  mankind  are  on  the 
line  of  the  universal  end  to  emancipate  the 
soul. 

In  this  sense  all  the  activities  of  humanity 
in  their  vast  variety  and  multiform  energies 
are  in  the  employ  of  religion.  For  religion  is 
the  name  of  the  final  and  much  desired  state, 
when  man  will  be  sovereign  of  himself,  as  far 
as  he  can,  and  master  of  the  tools  of  his  life. 

I  have  attempted  in  the  following  pages  to 
sketch  a  few  agreements  which  are  already 
noticeable  between  historical  Judaism  and  the 
present  science  of  religion.  I  mean  to  do  a 
humble  task,  conscious  of  the  magnitude  of 
the  problem.  I  am  content  with  suggesting 
merely  the  thought,  that  the  science  of  religion 
is  the  science  of  Judaism. 

I  find  it  is  time  to  say  something  with  respect 
to  the  science  of  religion  from  the  Jewish 
standpoint.  For  though  Max  Miiller,  Am- 
berly,   Albert    Kuhn,   Otto   Pfleiderer,    Tylor, 


viii  Preface. 

Lubbock,  and  R6ville  have  done  monumental 
work,  and  are  the  worthy  protagonists  of  a 
thought  which  already  has  gathered  to  itself 
many  illustrious  devotees,  Jewish  teachers  have 
been  silent  concerning  it,  and  I  thought  that 
something  ought  to  be  said  by  a  Jew  concern- 
ing this  most  promising  and  noblest  work  of 
our  age.  In  fact,  I  cannot  hesitate  admitting 
that  I  think  I  see  a  profound  revelation  in  this 
new  science — a  revelation  such  as  shall  corrobo- 
rate and  illustrate  most  notably  the  doctrines 
of  Judaism.  It  will  find  the  keynote  to  bring 
the  dissonant  chords  of  sectarian  religions  into 
harmony.  It  will  unfold  the  true  character  of 
religion,  and  teach  the  sublimity  of  God  by 
pointing  out  anew  and  in  the  loftiest  instance 
how  sublime  His  work  is.  It  is  my  fervent 
belief  that  the  results  of  the  science  of  religion 
and  the  doctrines  of  Judaism  overlap  each 
other,  and  so  I  have  treated  them  in  these 
chapters. 

In  this  spirit  I  have  essayed  touching  on 
some  points  common  to  this  science  of  religion 
and  to  Judaism.  I  shall  be  content  if  I  have 
succeeded  at  least  in  recommending  the  subject 
of  these  chapters  to  the  earnest  thought  of 
the  reader  and  to  men  of  greater  learning  and 
of  more  efficient  skill. 

L.  Grossmann. 

Detroit,  October,  1888. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I. — The  Intuitive  Character  of  Religion  .  i 

II. — Spontaneous  Religion 25 

III. — The  Universal  Religion  and  The  Sects  39 

IV. — Religion  and  Dogma 57 

V. — Prophecy 73 

VI. — Religious  Books go 

VII. — The  Standard  of  Morality    .        .  .105 

VIII. — Theories  of  Ethics 115 

IX. — The  Progress  of  Knowledge  .        .        .        T  123 

X. — The  History  of  Judaism 134 

XI. — Foreign  Elements  in  Judaism          .        .        .  146 
Index   . 177 


JUDAISM 

AND   THE 

SCIENCE    OF    RELIGION. 


CHAPTER   I. 

THE  INTUITIVE  CHARACTER  OF  RELIGION. 

To  trace  the  history  of  religion  to  its  first 
epoch  is  more  than  merely  matter-of-fact  his- 
torical work.  At  least,  so  we  are  continually 
told.  And  to  analyze  the  mass  of  religious 
teachings,  as  we  have  received  them,  and  to  dis- 
criminate between  principles  and  precepts,  an 
incisive  master  is  needed,  who  can  discern  the 
constituent  elements,  and  teach  them  discreetly 
and  with  more  reverence,  because  of  his  superior 
knowledge.  But  when  we  consider  that  each 
one  of  us,  however  humble  his  attainments  are, 
,  is  held  accountable  for  the  quality  of  his  re- 
ligion, for  as  our  principles,  so  our  life,  and  that 
again  determines  the  worth,  or  worthlessness,  of 
our  career,  such  an  investigation  becomes  a  mat- 
ter of  consideration  for  us.  And  when  we  add 
to  this,  that  it  accords  with  our  native  dignity, 
and  that  it  is  the  ambition  of  our  manhood,  to 
.grow  as   wise  as  we  can  with  regard  to  reli- 

I 


2    The  Intuitive  Character  of  Religion. 

gious  knowledge  ;  and  also,  that  we  have  re- 
spect, more  than  for  perfunctory  acts  of  ours, 
for  such  acts  of  ours  in  which  lies  evidence  of 
self-origination  and  self-conscious  purpose,  this 
study  of  nature  and  of  the  contents  of  reli- 
gion, and  of  faith  and  piety,  becomes  serious. 

To  each  one  of  us,  then,  such  an  investiga- 
tion is  profitable.  The  results  of  it  can  but  con- 
duce to  clearing  up  much  which  now  is  mysteri- 
ous, and  to  making  us  respectful  toward  the 
phenomena  of  nature,  the  significance  of  which 
we  cannot  make  out.  It  will  also  reconcile  us 
to  certain  aberrations  of  our  fellow-men,  with 
that  sort  of  forbearance  and  sympathy,  with 
which,  being  conscious  of  occasional  errors 
and  constitutional  foibles  on  our  part,  we  wish 
ourselves  to  be  received. 

The  study  of  the  science  of  religion  makes 
us  both  tolerant  and  hopeful.'  As  soon  as  we 
have,  by  a  desire  to  know,  come  to  look  upon 
religion  as  a  sacred  matter,  in  which  all  hu- 
man beings  have  a  profound  interest,  and 
upon  the  ways  in  which  people  believe  to 
worship    the     supreme    being,   as   co-ordinate 

'  "  The  nations  are  the  introduction  and  preparation  for  the 
expected  Messianic  time." — Jehuda  Halevi,"Kusari,"  IV.,  23. 

"  The  teachings  of  the  Nazarene,  and  also  those  of  the 
Arabian  after  him,  are  proper  to  pave  the  way  for  the  Mes- 
siah, and  subserve  the  purpose  of  the  eventual  serving  of  the 
Lord  distinctively  by  all  mankind." — Maimonides,  "  Hil- 
choth  Melochim,"  XI.,  11. 


The  Intuitive  Character  of  Religion.    3 

data  in  a  large  aggregate/  our  own  individual 
mode  of  contemplation,  which  we  have  of  the 
things,  of  the  affairs,  of  the  events,  and  of 
their  significance  in  this  world,  sinks  down 
into  a  level  with  the  rest.  We  realize  that,  at 
best,  we  are  nothing  exceptional,  but  follow  a 
rule  of  human  action,  a  law  of  mind,  a  divine 
intuition,  by  which  all  men  feel  out,  as  we  do, 
the  spirit,  according  to  the  capacities  of  which 
each  one  is  possessed. 

When  we  go  into  that  large  region,  where 
moves  the  soul  of  man,  let  us  remember  that 
we  have  not  to  deal  with  vagaries,  but  with 
thoughts  and  actions,  the  certainty  and  the 
regularity  of  which  may  surprise  us.  We  shall 
see  them  appear  in  all  places  where  the  mind 
of  man  was  busy  devising  means  of  suste- 
nance, and  even  where,  without  care,  savage 
man  was  satisfied  to  be  at  the  mercy  of  the 
earth.  The  unsophisticated  child  of  nature 
may  lack  the  words  for  confidence  and  for 
hope.'     We  shall  see,  however,  in  a  state    of 

'  Remembering  that  the  word  Thora  has  a  factitive  sense,  with 
the  intimation  that  the  "  pointing"  out  the  way,  the  directing, 
teaching,  has  a  progression,  the  passage  in  "  Pesacliim,"  68,  b, 
is  suggestive  of  the  thought,  that  the  virtue  of  a  doctrine  is  its 
promise  of  a  greater  illumination  :  "  If  it  were  not  for  the 
doctrine  (Thora),  heaven  and  earth  would  not  be  maintained." 

''  When  the  Talmud  says  :  "  The  aboriginal  man  (Adam 
Ha-rishon)  was  a  'Miji,'  i.  e.  a  dissenter," — (Sanhedrin,  38, 
b),  it  means  that  the  child  of  nature  had  no  servility  in  his 
temperament,  and  believed  himself  to  be  master. 


4    The  Intuitive  Character  of  Religion. 

primitive  culture  and  in  the  aboriginal 
condition,  the  demands  of  intuition  plainly- 
declared  ;  and,  as  we  know  there  is  a  religion 
of  civilization,  we  shall  come  to  recognize  re- 
ligious elements  in  the  life  of  the  wild  man.' 

'  Dr.  David  Kaufmann  maintains  :  "  The  fact  deserves 
being  mentioned,  that  the  Jewish  philosophers  of  religion  do 
not  advert  to  the  proof  for  the  existence  of  God  on  the 
ground  of  \h.&  consensus  gentium,  z.nAhG.C2^x?,&  the  concept  of 
God  resides  in  every  human  being,  either  by  intuition  or  by  a 
primeval  inwaid  revelation." — "  Geschichte  der  Attributen- 
lehre,"  Gotha,  1877,  p.  2,  note  4.  See,  however,  the  remarks 
of  Dr.  Wise,  in  his  "  Judaism  and  Christianity:  Their  Agree- 
ments and  Disagreements,"  Cincinnati,  1883,  p.  II.:  "Vox 
populi  vox  del  is  in  Hebrew,  Kol  hanunon  ke-kol  shadJai,  and 
Cicero's  argument  based  on  the  common  consent  of  all  nations, 
{arguinentum  a  consensu  genliutii)  must  not  be  taken  too 
lightly  .  .  .  for  all  men  know  more  than  one  man  ;  and 
when  we  speak  of  human  reason  we  mean  the  reason  of  hu- 
manity, or  at  least  of  that  portion  thereof  which  is  capable  of 
reasoning." 

Even  Nachmanides,  in  "  Sechuth  Adam  Horishan,"  speaks 
of  a  Sebara  hoenushith  Hayeshara,  a  healthful  rationale  of  the 
human  mind.  See  Jellinek  ed.  "  Derasha  des  Nachmanides," 
Leipzig,  1853. 

See  also  Salomo  ibn  Gabirol,  "  Mibchar  Hap'ninim  "  (in 
Lowinsohn's  German  translation,  Berlin,  1842,  p.  12).  Here 
Gabirol  speaks  deprecatingly  of  philosophy.  They  (the  phil- 
osophers) are  not  aware,  he  says,  that  their  disputes  are  set- 
tled already  before  their  disputations,  by  the  Haskonio — com- 
mon consent.  See  Geiger's  "  Salomo  ibn  Gabirol,"  Leipzig, 
1867,  p.  87,  and  note  97.  Abraham  ibn  Ezra  says:  "The 
laws  which  are  fundamental,  exclusive  of  time,  place,  and 
relation,  are  native  inclinations,  intuitive  qualities,  treasures, 
as  it  were,  put  into  our  hands  for  safe-keeping,     .     .     .     These 


The  Intuitive  Character  of  Religion.    5 

Nay,  we  discover  a  wealth  of  religious  ideas 
where  we  supposed  there  was  nothing  but  ani- 
mal living,  barren  of  all  mentality.  When 
our  aestheticism  and  our  finer  feelings  shall 
abhor  barbarous  practices,  our  study  leads  us 
to  recognize  that,  even  in  this  forlorn  condi- 
tion, the  native  instinct  has  come  to  the  sur- 
face, and  we  may  find  some  kind  of  extenua- 
tion for  them. 

We  deplore  that  a  shockingly  low  degree  of 
humaneness  led  the  Hindoo  widow  to  immo- 
late herself  on  the  pyre  of  her  husband,  or  the 
Fiji  to  drag  his  mother,  strangling  her  at  the 
grave  prepared  for  her  ;  but  psychology  will 
reconcile  us  to  these  practices,  and  by  intro- 
spection into  their  soul-life  we  shall  know  that, 
at  least,  they  are  bona  fide  efforts  of  religious 
exaltation,  which  are  analogous  to  that  high- 
strained  piety  through  which  the  Buddhist  re- 
signs himself  to  a  life  of  ascetic  beatitude,  and 
which  still  produces  hermits,  our  monks  and 
nuns,  and  those  cases  we  read  of  in  our  crimi- 
nal news  of  the  frightful  extravagances  of 
fanatics. 

modes  of  our  being,  men  were  conscious  of  previous  to  the 
delivery  of  the  Law  through  Moses,  and  there  are  many  of 
them.  The  ten  commandments  are  such,  except  the  Sabbath. 
Moses  merely  taught  them  again." — "  Yessod  Mora,"  Sha'ar 
v.,  I.  Jellinek  mentions  a  kabbalistic  work  on  Intuition,  by 
Chamai  Gaon,  "  Auswahl  Kabbalistischer  Mystik,"  I.  Heft, 
Leipzig,  1853,  p.  8. 


6    The  Intuitive  Character  of  Religion. 

There  is  one  thing  in  which  we  must  be 
clear.  It  is  apparently  a  truism.  There  is  not 
a  religious  system  in  the  world  which  does  not 
allege  teaching  the  doctrine,  and  I  am  bold  to 
say  there  is  not  one  of  them  that,  at  some  time 
or  other,  does  not  forget  it.  It  is  :  All  men 
have  religion.  I  know  that  as  soon  as  I  state 
this  I  incur  tacitly  blame  on  all  sides.  There 
is  an  everlasting  impugnment  of  the  charges  of 
heresy.  All  the  sects  stand  over  against  each 
other  with  this  cannon  of  heresy  loaded 
against  all  respective  outsiders.  So  that,  as  a 
matter  of  course,  all  are  in  the  fire,  all  heretics. 
Every  phase  of  religious  thought  is  against 
every  other  phase.  There  is  a  continuous 
assertion  of  the  dogma :  I  am  right,  all  the  rest 
of  you  are  wrong.  I  am  saved,  all  of  you  are 
damned.  Some,  led  by  sympathy,  felt  and 
said  that,  perhaps,  behind  the  errors,  as  which 
they  were  proclaimed,  there  might  be  some 
truth.  They  declared  that  the  all-assertive 
power  of  the  good  is  such,  that  in  all  the 
guesses  of  the  mass  of  human  beings,  there 
lies  an  element,  which  it  is  fair  to  admit  as 
somewhat  promising.  But  the  power  of 
Church  and  of  sects  was  quick  to  silence  these, 
not  from  a  suspicion  only  of  danger  from  them 
to  their  own  safety,  but  in  accordance  with 
the  nature  of  sectarianism. 

But  this  very  righteous  indignation  at  the 


The  Intuitive  Character  of  Religio7i.    7 

heterodox,  and  the  loyal  guarding  of  the  cho- 
sen doctrine,  is  perhaps  as  good  a  testimony 
as  one  wants  to  advert  to  the  fact,  which 
those  who  should  know,  are  bent  on  stifling, 
and  those  who  do  know,  are  brought  to  grief 
for.  Every  man  forms  his  own  religious  con- 
ception, and  within  the  precincts  of  each  re- 
ligion, who  can  guarantee  that  the  co-devo- 
tees to  his  faith  have  the  identical  concep- 
tions of  it  ?  '  Is  not  every  one  aware  that, 
owing  to  individuality,  which  defies  all  rules, 
latitude  must  be  tolerated.  The  organism 
of  church  discipline  must  relent  for  its  own 
good  sake,  and  forbear  interfering  with  the 
interpretations,  which  are  as  various  as  the 
multitudinous  refractions  of  the  ray  of  light, 
coming  down  from  the  great  central  fire  in  the 
sky,  and  breaking  up  into  a  thousand  colors. 
The  discreet  leaders  of  religious  movements 
appreciated  this.  Such,  however,  as  with  more 
enthusiasm  than  wisdom,  like  Calvin,  attempt- 
ed to  invade  the  precincts  of  individuality,  and 

'  If  we  look  still  more  minutely,  we  see  that  no  two  men  are 
exactly  alike  in  character,  circumstances,  and  development, 
and  therefore  that  no  two  men  can  exhibit  their  religion  in  just 
the  same  way,  though  they  kneel  at  the  same  altar  and  pro- 
nounce the  same  creed.  From  the  difference  between  men, 
it  follows  that  there  must  be  as  many  different  subjective  con- 
ceptions of  God,  and  forms  of  religion,  as  there  are  men  and 
women  who  think  about  God  and  apply  their  thoughts  and 
feelings  to  life. — Theodore  Parker,  "  Discourse  of  Matters  of 
Religion,"  London,  1877,  p.  27. 


8    The  Inhiitive  CJiaractcr  of  Religion, 

employed  the  irrational  method  of  insisting 
upon  a  pattern  of  religious  conception,  as  the 
workman  uses  his  pattern  to  turn  out  work, 
came  to  nought. 

Even  in  the  very  beginning  of  history,  when 
the  affairs  of  the  individual  merge  into  the 
communal  interests,  there  is  an  unmistakable 
evidence  that  the  motive  force  of  the  life  of 
every  member  of  the  tribe  has  a  centre,  a  spot, 
which  no  amount  of  compulsion  and  no  degree 
of  terror  can  touch.  The  cause  of  sustenance, 
of  self,  and  the  most  elusive  and  still  no  less 
positive  element  of  inward  direction,  induce 
and  regulate  his  actions,  and  these  yield  no- 
where, and  at  no  point  are  they  to  be  bent. 
In  fact,  throughout  the  history  of  mankind, 
there  has  been  nothing  which  has  been  held 
to  with  more  obstinacy,  and,  I  might  even  say, 
with  more  heroism,  than  this  very  self-asser- 
tion and  the  power  of  individuality  ;  in  bar- 
barian times  and  in  epochs  of  regeneration,  in 
periods  of  intellectual  decay,  perhaps  not  much 
less  than  in  times  in  which  the  geniuses  of 
mankind  lit  up  the  world  with  new  light.  This 
is  the  great  gift  of  the  deity  to  which  every 
man  clings,  whether  he  knows  it  to  be  a  divine 
thing  or  not ;  for  by  it  he  is  himself,  by  it  he 
contrasts  himself  with  others,  and  comes  to 
see  himself.  By  it  he  has  a  standard  to  check 
himself  off,  as  it  were,  as  one  amongst  his  fel- 


The  Intuitive  Character  of  Religioit.   g 

low-men,  nay  even  gauge  himself  with  a  more 
ambitious  standard.'  In  individuality,  and  in 
the  progression  of  the  fainter  and  gradually 
strengthening  power  of  self,  lies  the  track  for 
the  march  of  religion.  Individuality  is  the 
source,  and  individuality  is  also  the  end  of  re- 
ligion. From  a  glimmering  self-consciousness, 
in  which  acts  are  part  and  parcel  of  Ego,  there 
is  an  evolutionary  process  into  a  condition  of 
manliness,  in  which  every  thought  and  feeling 
and  act  are  determined  and  bear  the  stamp  we 
are  pleased  to  put  upon  them,  are  ours,  as 
God  can  call  all  creation  his,  being  the  benefi- 
cent and  munificent  in  one.^ 

This  individuality  at  all  periods  must  stand 
for  the  best  expression  we  have  of  religion  ; 
and  if  we  have  any  respect  for  the  false  re- 
ligions, it  is  because  there  was  in  them  this 
element  of  individuality,  at  a  time  when  to 

'  "  This  passing  beyond  the  empirical  world  implies  in  itself 
a  gauging  of  the  things  at  hand,  a  contrasting  them  with  the 
eternal." — Dr.  H.  Steinthal,  "  Mythos  und  Religion,"  Berlin, 
1870,  p.  20,  in  Virchow  und  Holtzendorf's  "  Sammlung  ge- 
meinverstandlicher  Vortrage,"  No.  97. 

^  "  My  son,  know  thy  soul,  and  thou  shalt  know  thy  crea- 
tor !" — Albo,  "  Ikkarim,"  III.,  6.  So  also  says  Gazzali 
("  Mos'ne  Zedek,"  ed..  Goldenthal,  Leipzig,  1839,  p.  28): 
"  One  of  the  wise  men  said  :  '  Know  thy  soul,  and  thou  shalt 
know  thy  God.'  " 

Isaac  Arama  in  "  Akedath  Jitzchok,"  Shaar  68,  exclaims: 
"I  am  much  surprised  to  find  that  he,  who  does  not  even 
know  of  his  soul,  desires  to  perceive  God  !  " 


lo    The  hihntive  Character  of  Religion, 

have  had  a  correct  and  faultless  religion 
would  have  been  nothing  short  of  a  miracle. 
We  are  willing  to  admit  that  in  so  far  as  hon- 
est efforts  were  made  with  limited  capacities 
and  meagre  tools  of  intellect,  it  behooves  us 
to  have  respect  even  for  the  false  concoctions 
they  called  their  religion,  because  we  are  sure 
that  that  which  set  their  intellects  at  work, 
the  spirit,  which  produced  all  this  mental  ac- 
tivity, which  backed  its  ambitious  undertaking, 
was  akin  to  the  noblest  mind  that  ever  earned 
the  admiration  and  the  lasting  gratitude  of 
mankind.' 

'  Let  me  call  attention  to  a  passage  in  Renan's  new  work, 
"  The  History  of  the  People  of  Israel,"  Boston,  i8SS  (English 
translation),  p.  3:  "We  must  assume  primitive  humaniiy  to 
have  been  very  malevolent.  The  chief  characteristics  of  man 
for  many  centuries  were  craft,  a  refinement  for  cunning,  and  a 
degree  of  lubricity,  which,  like  that  of  the  monkey,  knew  nei- 
ther times  nor  seasons.  But  amid  this  mass  of  shameless 
satyrs  there  were  some  groups,  which  had  the  germs  of  bet- 
ter things  in  them.  Love  was  in  the  course  of  time  accom- 
panied by  reverie.  Slowly  but  surely  a  principle  of  authority 
was  establislied.  The  need  for  order  created  the  hierarchy. 
Force  was  met  by  imposture  and  by  working  upon  the  super- 
stitious fear  of  men  ;  sacerdotal  offices  were  founded.  Cer- 
tain men  persuaded  others  that  they  were  the  necessary  inter- 
mediaries between  them  and  the  divinity." 

This  is  an  account  of  the  original  history  of  religion, 
which  must  be  designated  as  truly  Mandevilian.  Notice  that 
even  Mandeville  did  not  posit  a  more  aggravated  base- 
ness as  the  source  of  religious  practices.  Mandeville  holds 
that  virtue  sprang  in  the  first  instance  from  the  cunning  of 
rulers.     They  acted  upon   the  feeling  of  vanity.     Similarly 


The  Intuitive  Character  of  Religion.    1 1 

We  analyze  the  mind  of  the  primitive  man. 
We  try  to  get  behind  the  scenes  of  his  mental 
life  ;  to  discover  the  motives  which,  because 
of  their  peculiar  character,  we  never  fail  to 
recognize  as  aboriginal.  This  is  an  instance  in 
which  primitive  studies,  apart  from  their  in- 
trinsic interest,  become  instructive  and  disci- 
plinary. What  gives  to  this  first  period  in  the 
history  of  religion  the  characteristic  which  is 
inalienable,  and  which  perhaps  no  later  period 
possesses,  as  this  one  does  ?  It  is  that  here 
we  hav,e  a  time  in  which  every  thing  is  direct. 
Every  one  himself  communicated  with  God, 
with  nature,  with  spirit.  The  questions  are 
direct,  the  answers  gathered  direct.  There  is 
a  reaching  out  on  the  part  of  every  inquiring 
individual  to  satisfy  a  conscious,  an  emotional, 
a  peremptory  question.     Go  through  the  his- 

Renan  speaks  of  original  "lubricity"  and  subsequent  priestly 
imposition.  In  his  "Enquiry  into  the  Origin  of  Moral  Vir- 
tue "  Mandeville  says:  "  Observing  that  none  were  either  so 
savage  as  not  to  be  charmed  with  praise,  or  so  despicable  as 
patiently  to  bear  contempt,  they  justly  concluded  that  flattery 
must  be  the  most  powerful  argument  that  could  be  used  to 
human  creatures.  Making  use  of  this  bewitching  engine, 
they  extolled  the  excellency  of  our  nature  above  other  ani- 
mals. ...  by  the  help  of  which  we  were  capable  of  perform- 
ing the  most  noble  achievements.  Having,  by  this  artful 
flattery  insinuated  themselves  into  the  hearts  of  men,  they  be- 
gan to  instruct  them  in  the  notions  of  honor  and  shame,  etc." 
— Quoted  in  Lecky's  "  History  of  European  Morals,"  New 
York,  1882,  Vol.  I.,  p.  6. 


1 2    The  Intuitive  Character  of  Religion. 

tory  of  the  Church  and  through  many  other 
phases  of  reh'gious  history,  can  you  take  out 
of  the  mass  of  believers  one,  who  went  to  the 
bosom  of  nature  in  such  a  childHke  way? 
Then  there  were  herds  that  were  driven  in 
mass  by  the  dictatorial  teaching  of  the  leader. 
Did  any  one  dare  to  hide  apart,  going  out  in 
the  yearning  of  his  burning  soul,  to  drink  from 
the  universal  spring — he  was  a  heretic.  Man 
in  the  pure  state  of  naturalness  could  do  what 
the  man  of  a  civilized  age  cannot.  Individual- 
ity must  have  free  scope;  it  is  imperative; 
it  is  regal.     There  can  be  no  gainsaying. 

And  now  there  has  been  a  happy  reversion. 
Providence  has  at  last  freed  individualism  from 
its  unnatural  prison  ;  there  is  much  promise. 
Now  let  prophets  arise !  They  have  a  glorious 
theme.  Man  has  been  emancipated,  and  the 
proclamation  of  freedom  has  been  heard  ;  it 
has  penetrated  everywhere.  There  is  no  nook 
in  the  civilized  world,  but  what  some  one  has 
heard  the  appeal  that  has  been  sent  out  broad- 
cast. The  dry  bones  are  beginning  to  move. 
There  is  a  regeneration  ;  but  this  time  not  by 
priest,  not  by  holy  water  or  baresma.  Do  not 
look  for  an  intricate  composite,  for  an  ingeni- 
ous contrivance,  by  which  all  religions  and  all 
sects  can  be  adapted  to  one  gauge?  There  is 
no  compromise,  because  it  is  the  most  simple ; 
in  fact,  up  to  our  time  there  could  have  been 


The  Intuitive  Character  of  Religion.    1 3 

no  such  simple  faith,  because  these  times  were 
not  simple.  It  is  the  most  peaceful  solution  of 
the  perplexing  matter.  It  is  no  antagonism  ; 
because  the  universal  faith  comes  spontane- 
ously out  of  the  heart  of  man.  Let  me  lay  it 
down  here  without  question,  and  in  a  plain 
way,  that  the  coming  faith  does  not  antagonize. 
It  does  not  ingratiate  itself  into  the  good  graces 
of  any  sect,  and  cares  not  for  the  immediate 
benefit  of  dissemination.  It  has  no  opposition 
to  any  faith.  It  states  candidly  the  claims  that 
a  man,  by  the  fact  of  his  manhood  has  an  in- 
alienable possession.'  It  guards  these.  It 
stands  for  individuality,  which  is  the  solid 
content  of  all  religiousness,  and  it  goes  out  to 
preach  the  gospel  of  individuality,  as  the  scien- 
tist undertakes  to  gain  converts  to  the  belief  in 
the  unerring  laws  of  nature.  Science  takes 
out  of  the  mass  of  human  studies  the  depart- 
ment of  religion,  and  makes  that  the  paramount 
object  of  thought.  He,  who  wants  to  know  it 
and  make  it  his  own,  must  come  and  attend. 

Does  any  one  say  this  is  sacrilegious?  He 
who  thinks  it  is  sacrilegious  to  analyze,  to  study 
religion  and  religious  phenomena,  goes  farther 
than  we  dare  ever  go.''    The  pearl  that  sparkles 

'  "  The  act  of  converting  a  man  is  like  having  created  him." 
— "  Bereshith  Rabba,"  84. 

'■^  Rabbenu  Nissim  declares  .  ' '  There  is  no  doubt  of  it  that 
it  is  proper  that  the  things  appertaining  to  natural  phenomena 
and  their  explanation  should  not  be  mysterious,  but  be  under- 
stood and  popularized." — "  Derashoth  "  of  R.  Nissim,  I.,  5,  2, 


14    TJie  Intjiitive  Character  of  Religion. 

on  the  sands  of  the  ocean  is  no  gift  of  God  as 
long  as  it  lies  there.  The  religion  which  God 
has  implanted  in  us  is  to  be  mined,  as  gold  is 
mined  out  of  the  bowels  of  the  earth.  The 
faith  that  is  found  on  the  surface  is  not  the 
faith  we  want.  We  want  it  dug  up,  carefully 
cleansed  of  all  alloy,  and  then  beaten  with 
blows  from  the  hammer  of  our  character,  into 
a  thing  of  beauty  and  of  use.  Did  God  give  us 
any  thing  on  earth,  that  putting  our  hands 
lazily  into  our  lap,  we  shall  be  the  consumers? 
Am  I  not  at  least  to  put  the  acid  on  it  to  test 
its  degree  of  fineness?  The  times  of  recep- 
tivity, with  enforced  absence  of  self-assertion 
are — God  be  thanked  ! — passed  ;  and — God  be 
thanked  ! — the  time  has  come  when  we  can  go 
to  work  earnestly  and  manfully  in  the  serious 
endeavor  of  self-enlightenment  and  self-im- 
provement,to  find  forourselves  what  is  religion; 
how  it  came  ;  what  was  its  first  form  ;  what  is 
its  history;  how  did  mankind  progress  in  the 
school  of  religious  teachings.  What  is  religion 
in  itself?  Taking  away  the  heap  of  accretion 
which  has  gathered  upon  the  venerable  faiths 
of  antiquity,  what  is  left  ?  And  having  obtained 
the  residual  quantity,  what  is  worthy  the  name 
divine  intuition,  and  destined  to  become  in 
fact  the  universal  faith? 

In    the    light    of    these    considerations,    by 
which   we  grow  more    strongly   convinced  of 


The  Intuitive  Character  of  Religion.    1 5 

the  fundamental  unity  of  the  human  race, 
every  man  being  found  to  be  endowed  by 
nature  with  an  aptitude,  with  which  he  fashions 
for  himself  the  furniture  of  his  mind  and  fits 
up  his  spiritual  home,  we  have  yet  one  matter 
to  attend  to.  Strange  to  say,  it  is  to  vindicate 
a  truth  against  the  author  of  it.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  notice  an  assertion  made  by  Max 
Miiller,  and  before  stating  it  I  bear  witness 
gratefully  to  the  "  epoch-making  "  services  of 
that  profound  scholar,  who  has  given  the  first 
impulse  to  the  liberal  and  liberalizing  study  of 
religions,  and  to  whom  is  due  the  growing 
habit  of  toleration  and  communion  between 
the  faiths.  He  says,  and  it  could  scarcely  be 
expressed  more  concisely,  that  there  were 
different  modes  of  aspects  among  the  races, 
and  makes  ethnical  distinctions  in  matters 
of  religion.  "  The  worship  of  the  Aryan 
race,  characterized  by  one  word,  is  a  worship 
of  God  in  nature,  appearing  behind  the  gor- 
geous veil  of  nature,  rather  than  as  hidden  be- 
hind the  veil  of  the  sanctuary  of  the  human 
heart."  '  And  "  The  worship  of  all  the  Se- 
mitic nations,  characterized  by  one  word,  was 
preeminently  God  in  History,  of  God  as  affect- 
ing the  destinies  of  individuals,  and  races,  and 
nations,   rather  than  of  God   as  wielding  the 

'  Max  Miiller,   "Science  of  Religion,"  New  York,    1870, 
pp.  62,  63. 


1 6    The  Intuitive  Character  of  Religion. 

powers  of  nature.'"  But  it  is  not  evident  in 
what  connection  these  two  precise  characteri- 
zations stand  with  the  third  quotation,  which 
I  allow  myself  to  transcribe :  "  The  names  of 
the  Semitic  deities  are  mostly  words  expressive 
of  moral  qualities  ;  they  mean  the  Strong,  the 
Exalted,  the  Lord,  the  King  ;  and  they  grow 
but  seldom  into  divine  personalities,  definite  in 
their  outward  appearance,  or  easily  to  be  rec- 
ognized by  strongly  marked  features  of  a  real 
dramatic  character.  Hence  many  of  the  an- 
cient Semitic  gods  have  a  tendency  to  flow 
together,  and  a  transition  from  the  worship  of 
many  gods  to  the  worship  of  one  god  required 
no  great  effort.  In  the  monotonous  desert, 
more  particularly,  the  worship  of  single  gods 
glided  away  almost  imperceptibly  into  the 
worship  of  one  God."  ° 

If  it  is  said,  on  the  one  side,  the  data  in  the 
formation  of  the  idea  of  God  are  gathered 
from  nature,  and  on   the  other  from   history, 

*  Ibid.,  p.  63. 

"^  Ibid.,  p.  63.  Let  me  refer  here  to  page  19,  where  the 
dramatic  aspect  will  be  found  to  be  not  an  insignificant  factor 
in  matters  of  religion.  The  moral  conduct  of  man  is  conven- 
tional and  utilitarian,  except  for  the  display  of  man's  un- 
questioning submissiveness  to  the  stringent  supremeness  of 
Providence.  The  presentiment  is  prominent  in  Judaism  that 
personal  fate  is  coordinate  with  communal  destiny  and  subordi- 
nate to  the  unfailing  and  persistent  assertion  of  the  universal 
end. 


The  Inhtitive  Character  of  Religion.    1 7 

the  distinction  is  ingenious  with  respect  to 
the  ethnological  aspect  in  later  stages  of  reli- 
gion among  the  two  races  respectively.  It 
seems,  however,  that  we  do  not  misapprehend 
Max  Miiller's  method,  in  which  he  was  incon- 
testably  the  protagonist,  that  in  dealing  with 
the  connotation  of  names  of  gods  and  with 
the  modes  of  worship,  he  searches  for  essen- 
tials of  human  nature,  and  that  he  is  inclined 
to  estimate  the  modifying  influences  of  cir- 
cumstance, and  race,  and  history,  as  merely 
incidental.  The  premise  is  that  natural  dispo- 
sition is  alike  in  all  human  beings,  the  consid- 
erations of  ethnology  are  after-considerations. 
I  shall  not  contend  here  that  to  determine 
the  fundamentals  of  a  religious  conception 
something  more  is  needed  than  observation  of 
worship ;  though  that  is  no  small  aid  to  the 
religious  scientist.  But,  admitting  that  the 
kind  of  religious  practices  may  be  hints  of  the 
drift  of  religious  thought,  the  thought,  at  any 
rate,  is  earlier,  and  has  its  own  history,  which 
supervenes  that  of  ritual  and  worship.  In 
fact,  worship  is  an  institution,  while  religion  is 
not.  This  is  original.  To  distinguish,  there- 
fore, between  Aryan  and  Semitic  religions  is 
legitimate  only  when  we  keep  in  mind  that  we 
are  treating  of  later  phases,  not  of  the  origi- 
nal state  of  them,  which  was  identical  in  all, 
as  human  nature  is  identical  in  all  men,  with- 


1 8    The  Intuitive  Character  of  Religion. 

out  regard  to  their  race,  or  nationality,  or  place 
of  living  singly.' 

In  addition  to  this,  the  explanation  which  Max 
Miiller  offers  needs  to  be  investigated,  in  the 
first  place,  of  the  transition  of  the  henotheism 
of  the  Semitic  peoples,  and  of  the  merging  of 
the  separate  gods  into  one  generic  God,  and 
in  the  second  place,  of  the  moral  character  of 
each  of  these  former  ones,  and  of  their  po- 
tency because  of  their  dramatic  character. 
For  it  looks  just  to  say  that  the  gods  of  the 
PhcEuicians,  Babylonians,  and  Jews,  were, 
in  the  main  moral  conceptions,  and  in  this 
sense  the  analysis  is  happy.  But  with  respect 
to  the  contrast  drawn  between  Semitic  views 
of  a  predominating  moral  norm  in  destiny  and 
Aryan  materialistic  fatalism,  it  will  be  noted 
that  no  finality  has  been  stated.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  in  fixing  a  relation   between 

'  "  The  dislinction  is  not  to  be  sought  in  tlie  difference  of  the 
objective  aspect  of  a  nature,  but  solely  in  the  practical  inter- 
est of  every  tribe  to  suppose  that  the  divine  being  is  specially 
and  exclusively  connected  with  it.  Only  in  this  practical 
sense  of  a  special  God  of  the  separate  tribes  can  we  speak  of 
the  '  mono-theistic  instinct  of  the  Semites.'  But  not  in  the 
theoretic  sense  of  a  recognition  of  one  universal  world  deity. 
In  fact,  the  Semites  were  originally  farther  removed  from  the 
theoretic  conception  of  a  divine  unity,  which  is  inseparably 
connected  with  its  universality,  than  the  Indo-Europeans,  for 
of  a  mono-theistic,  speculative  idea  of  God  we  find,  among 
these  latter,  nowhere  any  trace." — Otto  Pfleiderer,  "Religions - 
philosophic,"  Berlin,  1884,  Vol.  II.,  p.  I20. 


The  Intuitive  Character  of  Religion.    19 

himself  and  his  God,  man  transcends  purely 
moral  and  natural  phenomena.  The  impres- 
sions gathered  from  the  play  of  fate,  /.  e.  of 
moral  and  of  natural  law,  coalesce.  Weak  and 
transient  man  feels  himself  incommensurate 
with  the  power,  and  helpless  in  the  regime,  of 
both  fate  and  nature.  It  is  clear  that  by  re- 
gime of  nature  is  meant  the  execution  of  laws 
in  the  world  of  matter,  the  experiences  man 
has  come  to  value  at  the  expense  of  personal 
cost.  So  also  it  is  plain  what  is  meant  by  the 
power  of  fate.  The  overwhelming  demonstra- 
tion of  "  a  power  not  ourselves  "  that  condi- 
tions and  rules  us,  and  of  which,  after  a  lapse 
of  prolonged  observation  and  experiences,  we 
form  a  conviction  that  it  is  just  and  "  making 
for  righteousness." 

Now,  to  hold  these  two  experiences  apart  is 
making  a  distinction  which  an  inward  feeling, 
hard  to  define,  tells  us  does  not  obtain  ;  but, 
on  the  contrary,  this  intuition  suggests  the 
presence  of  one  grand  intelligence.  It  is  not 
nature  by  itself,  or  fate  as  exemplified  in  his- 
tory by  itself,  that  brings  home  the  thought  of 
God,  but  that  which  they  both  jointly  suggest. 
It  is  the  dramatic  which  I  mean.  There  is  a 
dramatic  expression  in  the  peal  of  thunder,  of 
which  the  frail  being  is  keen  to  be  cognizant, 
for  he  knows  that  the  elements  have  their  own 
sovereign  way.     Often  enough  the  thunder  has 


20    The  Intuitive  Character  of  Religion. 

rolled  threateningly  above  him,  and  he  has 
seen  the  brows  of  heaven  knit,  and  that 
sinister  foreboding  he  knew.  He  saw  the 
spirit  of  heaven  wrap  himself  in  the  dark 
clouds,  and  the  kind  light  disappear.  All 
prayers  and  sacrifices  were  then  in  vain.  It  is 
the  mise-en-sccne  of  the  superior  law,  in  the 
presence  of  which  the  reed-like  hand  of  man 
can  avail  nothing.  It  was  a  spectacle  of  force, 
but  not  malevolent.  Somehow,  we  reproach 
ourselves,  mentally,  for  our  lack  of  trust.  And 
so  also  in  the  moral  world  the  dramatic  pre- 
sentation of  Providence  is  perceptible  every 
hour  and  in  every  place.  We  have  not  yet 
learned  to  divorce  will  of  God  from  laws  of 
Providence.  They  are  substantially  one.  It  is 
useless,  under  all  circumstances  unwise,  and 
it  implies  skepticism,  hurrying  to  get  out  from 
beneath  the  hand  of  Providence. 

Mark  what  Reville  says':  "  What  is  a  tra- 
gedy ?  It  is  the  exhibition  by  the  setting 
forth  of  an  event,  or  of  a  situation,  or  of  a 
human  destiny,  of  a  superior  order  of  things, 
overwhelming  in  its  irresistible  course  our 
petty  calculations,  our  limited  previsions,  our 
vulgar  wisdom,  advancing  imperturbably 
towards  its  goal  without  concerning  itself  with 
these  spiders'  webs,  and  attaining  its  ends  with 

'  "  Prolegomena  to  the  History  of  Religions,"  Translated 
by  A.  S.  Squire.     London,  1884,  p.  70. 


The  Intuitive  Character  of  Religion.   2 1 

the  fixity,  the  regularity,  and  the  certainty  of 
a  planetary  movement.  Take  any,  no  matter 
what,  example  in  history  or  in  art,  of  stirring 
tragedy,  and  this  definition  will  be  justified." 

"  Most  of  those,"  he  continues,  "  who  are 
the  spectators  of  a  tragic  event  or  catastrophe 
are  unable  clearly  to  describe  the  profound 
impression  which  they  receive  from  it.  Their 
imaginations,  their  consciences,  are  stirred  ;  but 
they  do  not  think  of  analyzing  the  significa- 
tion of  this;  they  see  only  the  terrible  or  the 
grandiose  side  of  tragic  things.  Nevertheless, 
there  are  terrible  things  which  we  cannot  call 
tragic :  the  hurricane,  for  example,  when  it 
passes  over  without  causing  great  misfortunes  ; 
and  there  are  grand  things,  such  as  the  sea 
when  calm,  but  which  again  are  not  tragic. 
The  terrible  as  such,  and  the  grand  as  such, 
are  not  enough  to  constitute  the  tragic  element. 
It  is  necessary  that  there  should  be,  in  addition 
to  these,  the  revelation  of  a  law,  or  of  a  supe- 
rior direction  of  things.  The  ancient  drama  for 
a  long  time  confined  itself  to  the  external  side 
of  tragedy,  showing  in  it  little  more  than  fatal- 
ity. .  .  .  But  to-day,  as  in  the  old  times,  it 
is  really  the  manifestation  of  the  superior  law 
of  things  which  constitutes  its  value  and  its 
true  character.  A  powerful  empire  which  falls, 
undermined  by  internal  vices  long  concealed 
under  brilliant   appearances;  a  benefactor  of 


2  2    The  Intuitive  Character  of  Religion. 

humanity  who,  at  first  received  with  acclama- 
tion, perishes,  the  victim  of  human  wickedness  ; 
a  catastrophe  which  enguh^s  the  most  legiti- 
mate hopes,  the  most  tender  affections,  all  that 
recalls  the  inalienable  sovereignty  of  the  moral 
order,  or  of  the  frailty  of  our  best  combined 
plans,  or  the  necessity  of  aspiring  after  eternal 
spheres  as  the  only  region  in  which  the  supreme 
sentence  of  destiny  is  pronounced  ; — all  this  is 
tragic,  and  deserves  the  name."  "  Man  is  led 
by  a  secret  tendency  of  his  being  to  love  the 
tragic  and  to  find  pleasure  in  its  contempla- 
tion." "  This  is  because  there  is  a  mysterious 
afifinity  between  that  mind  and  this  superior 
order  of  things,  which  tragedy  reveals  ;  and 
the  more  the  human  mind  is  developed,  the 
more  it  is  sensible  of  this  emotion  which  stirs 
it  to  its  depths." 

Reville  might  extend  the  applicableness  of 
his  fine  analysis.  This  contemplation  and 
awe  of  the  irresistible  course  of  law,  in  every 
department  of  phenomena,  is  the  occasion 
for  the  birth  of  the  latent  thought  of  the 
deity,  and  upon  it  man  throws  himself  in  his 
craving  to  deify.  Let  me  emphasize  this  ad- 
ditional importance  of  Reville's  thought.  I 
mean  to  say  that  the  perception  of  sovereign 
law  is  not,  as  according  to  Max  Miiller,  con- 
fined to  the  moral  world  alone,  but  that  the 
Aryan  religions  also,  which  he  defines  as  simple 


The  Intuitive  Character  of  Religion.   23 

nature-worship,  must  be  reduced  to  the  same 
original  taste  for  the  tragic. 

With  this  as  a  guide  we  can  attempt  to  ascer- 
tain why  Max  Miiller  was  constrained  to  say- 
that  "  the  gods  of  the  Aryan  pantheon  assume 
an  individuality  so  strongly  marked  and  per- 
manent that,  with  the  Aryans,  a  transition  to 
monotheism  required  a  powerful  struggle  and 
seldom  took  effect  without  iconoclastic  revolu- 
tions or  philosophical  despair."  The  transition 
from  polytheism  to  monotheism  must  have 
been  slow,  and  must  have  involved  an  inevi- 
table contest,  since  it  is  not  difficult  to  perceive 
that  the  popular  mind  could  not  turn  readily 
from  fearing  and  venerating  catastrophes  of 
matter  into  heeding  the  less  obvious  instances 
of  an  omniscient  judicature,  to  turn  from  Tight- 
ness of  action  to  righteousness  of  motives,  from 
legalism  into  ethics.  It  implies  not  two  stages 
of  theology,  but  two  different  phases  of  culture. 

On  the  whole,  the  distinctive  doctrine  of 
Judaism  is  its  rounded  conception  of  divine 
unity.  With  regard  to  this  conception  of  unity, 
the  contrast  between  polytheism  and  mono- 
theism is  not  precise.  Aside  from  the  total 
negation  of  the  materiality  of  God's  being, 
there  is  characteristic  to  the  Jewish  conception 
of  God,  that  he  is  considered  to  be  absolute,  a 
thought  which  makes  an  uncompromising  con- 
trast between  it  and   paganism. — There    is   a 


24     The  Intuitive  Character  of  Religion. 

step  in  the  ascent  of  this  thought,  which 
must  be  first  well  noticed,  or  else  there  is 
misunderstanding.  Monotheism,  in  the  Jewish 
sense,  is  more  than  oneness  of  God,  more  than 
a  protest  against  multiplicity  of  deities.  It  is 
deified  individualism' — the  highest  soul  in  the 
greatest  magnitude,  with  the  vastness  of  power, 
with  the  infinity  of  efificiency,  with  the  unap- 
proachable grandeur  of  exalted  being,  but  also 
with  the  infinite  delicateness  of  virtue.  The 
Jewish  God  is  Supreme,  in  the  natural  as  well 
as  in  the  moral  world.  It  may  be  convenient 
to  classify  the  aspects  in  which  He  becomes 
manifest.  But  in  Himself,  He  is  the  substance 
of  all  life — nay,  He  is  "The  Life,"  pulsating  in 
the  universe. 

^Quoted  by  Kaufriiinn,  "Die  Attributenlehre,"  p.  24. 
"  We  say  God  is  one.  We  mean  he  is  one,  neither  in  the  cate- 
gory of  greatness,  nor  of  the  reverse  ;  one,  not  as  to  the  fact 
of  creation,  but  in  complete  absoluteness,  in  which  there  is  no 
differentiation  nor  consistency  of  component  parts  ;  one  in 
supremeness  with  no  analogy.  All  this  is  equivalent  to  saying  : 
He  is  one,  the  first  without  beginning,  the  last  without  end, 
the  inducer  of  all  events,  the  cause  of  all  effects." — "  Hali- 
choth  Kedem,"  p,  73  and  Fiirst's  "  Orient,"  1S47,  p.  620. 


CHAPTER  II. 

SPON TA NEO  US  RELIGION. 

In  what  I  shall  say  now  concerning  the  fun- 
damental doctrine  of  Judaism  and  concerning 
that,  which  in  the  study  of  the  history  of  reli- 
gion is  found  to  be  the  essence  of  religion, 
the  essence  of  Judaism  and  the  essence  of 
generic  religion  are  identical.  Let  me  ask  the 
reader  to  take  two  words  as  synonymous.  I 
mean,  intuition  and  spontaneity.  For  I  shall 
treat  them  as  such.  I  believe  I  am  not  stretch- 
ing the  meaning  of  these  two  words  too  far. 
Both  are  attributes  of  our  soul-life,  and  both 
imply  that  they  are  present  at  the  inception  of 
mental  activity.  Intuition  is  an  innate  dispo- 
sition, spontaneity  is  that  likewise,  with  an  ad- 
ditional element.  Spontaneity  does  not  stop 
at  suggestion,  but  it  also  induces  work.  In  the 
conception  of  religion,  a  native  disposition  and 
a  direct  effort  on  the  line  of  it,  are  constitu- 
ents. It  is  incumbent  on  a  religious  man  not 
only  to  feel  religious,  but  he  must  also  not 
delay  the  doing  of  the  duty.  The  fact  is,  that 
the  suggestion  of  faith  has  an  inner  necessity, 
which  compels  the  act.  We  shall,  therefore, 
25 


26  Sp07ita7ieous  Religion. 

forego  etymology,  and  use  intuition  and  spon- 
taneity for  each  other. 

I  wish  to  intimate  that  there  is  a  way  of  con- 
ceiving reh'gion,  in  which  the  interchange  of 
these  terms  will  not  only  be  granted  as  an  in- 
dulgence, but  perhaps  be  required.  Let  me 
explain.  It  is  agreed  that  whatever  is  imme- 
diate in  the  sphere  of  speculation  is  elemen- 
tary. The  axioms,  which  need  no  proof,  are 
elementary;  every  man  is  willing  to  admit 
them  as  true  without  any  further  trouble.  They 
are  immediate.  They  are  the  brick  with  which 
the  thinker  builds  up  his  speculative  structure. 
Let  us  attend  to  this  subject  more  closely. 

The  barbarian  infuses  into  his  surroundings 
the  poetry  that  is  in  him  ;  he  personifies,  all 
events  become  alive,  and  every  thing  in  nature 
is  akin  to  him.  You  see  how  man,  in  his  prim- 
itivity,  was  no  mean  idealist.  The  whole 
world  was  his  kin';  the  gross  matter  had  for 
him  a  spirit  in  it,  by  virtue  of  which  it  as  dear 
to  him  as  the  glorious  day  of  summer  was  dear 
to  the  cultured  Emerson.  Strange  contrast ; 
still  so  natural.  The  soul,  which  goes  out  into 
the  vast  fields  of  the  earth,  to  pick  up  stray 

1 "  God  said  :  Let  us  make  man  !  With  whom  did  he  take 
counsel?  Rabbi  Josua  says,  in  the  name  of  R.  Levi :  He  con- 
sulted heaven  and  earth.  R.  Samuel  bar  Nachmani  says  : 
He  consulted  all  the  creations  of  every  day." — "Bereshith 
Rabba." 


spontaneous  Religio7i.  27 

hints  of  logic  to  discover  God,  is  poor  and  pit- 
iable. But  he,  whose  heart  is  open  to  the 
bountiful  inspiration  which  streams  in  from 
creation,  and  who  hails  every  atom  of  the  uni- 
verse as  his  brother,  fashioned  like  himself  by 
the  hand  of  the  Great  Father,' — I  say  such  a 
one,  though  he  be  aboriginal,  stands  upon  a 
high  plane  which,  for  this  redeeming  com- 
munion, I  would  like  to  call  culture,  if  I 
could. 

The  earliest  religion  was  a  religion  of  per- 
sonified nature,  and  I  have  long  noticed  a 
poetic  strain,  having  its  source  in  aspects  of 
natural  beauty,  which  runs  through  all  ancient 
religions,  for  which  I  have  looked  with  much 
disappointment  among  the  later  phases  of 
belief,^  and  surely  in  vain  in  the  modern  schools 
of  rationalism  and  of  philosophic  eclecticism. 
They  have  crowded  all  poetry  out  of  religion. 
I  do  not  know  how  far  they  wish  to  go  in  their 

'  "  He  gathered  dust  from  the  four  ends  of  the  world,  red, 
black,  white,  and  yellow  .  .  .  Why  from  the  four  ends  of  the 
world? — If  a  man  go  from  the  east  to  the  west,  and  die 
there,  the  earth  shall  not  be  able  to  say  :  '  Thou  art  not  of 
mine,  go  to  the  place  where  thou  wast  created.'  Every  spot 
on  which  man  is,  is  kin  to  his  body  and  to  it  he  returns."  — 
"  Bereshith  Rabba." 

^  Even  into  practical  Judaism  an  almost  metaphysical  name 
of  God  came  to  be  current;  vid.  "  Midrash  Rabba,"  117. 
"Why  do  they  call  God  "  Mokom "  (Place,  or  Space)? 
because  He  is  the  Space  of  the  world,  but  the  world  does  not 
encompass  him." 


28  spontaneous  Religion, 

rationalism  ;  but  I  care  not  to  what  else  they 
have  recourse  to  reconstruct  upon  a  logical 
basis  the  principles  of  conduct,  they  must  not 
neglect  the  inherent  love  of  man  for  the 
poetic.  Speaking  of  poetry  in  religion  I  do 
not  mean  the  artificial  coordination  of  syllables 
and  sounds — an  art  beautiful  in  itself,  some- 
times noble,  but  never  a  natural  intuition. 
We  want  rather  symmetry  of  thoughts  and  of 
sentiments.'  I  speak  not  of  verbal  poets,  nor 
of  artistic  fancy,  which  is  charming,  but  as  far 
from  poetry  in  the  wide  sense  as  the  repeated 
striking  of  the  key-note  is  to  the  swelling  and 
resonant  and  sweetly  responsive  song  of  the 
nightingale  in  the  branches  in  the  silence  of 
the  night. 

There  is  suggestiveness  in  nature,  and  the 
first  men  felt  it.  The  open  and  ingenuous  face 
and  the  clear  lisping  of  the  child  are  evidences 
of  a  pure  soul-life  and  kinship  with  God's 
world.  On  this  account  the  religions  of  an- 
tiquity are  attractive,  because  they  bring  to  us 
the  record  of  a  time,  when  the  life  of  a  man  was 
unreserved,  when  left  to  himself,  the  intuitive 
sense  led  him  to  the  spring  of  truth  as  directly 
as  the  birds,  after  the  winter  is  gone,  find  their 
home   when  the   air   is  clearing,  the  grass  is 

'  Therefore,  by  the  way,  Semitic  poetry,  notwithstanding  its 
poverty  as  to  versification  and  prosody,  is  the  best  type  of 
poetry  we  have. 


spontaneous  Religion.  29 

again  stirring,  and  the  little  brooklet  is  mur- 
muring again  in  the  meadow. 

It  is  hard  for  us  now  to  realize  how  strong 
the  imagination  can  be,  so  much  has  our  native 
instinct  been  dulled.  Now  the  glorious  spirit 
leaps  about  before  our  eyes  in  thousand  glow- 
ing colors,  his  voice  laughs  in  myriads  of  merry 
sounds  almost  in  vain. 

But  let  us  once  more  imagine  the  position 
the  primitive  man  was  in  in  this  eventful  world  ; 
we  shall  perceive  in  an  approximate  way  that 
there  were  temptations  for  his  fancy  to  roam, 
and  that  his  unbounded  and  youthful  imagina- 
tion saw  the  deity  even  where  we  do  not  suspect. 
They  say  man  feared  the  gods  and  therefore 
worshipped  them  to  appease  their  wrath.  But 
they  are  wide  of  the  mark.  The  child  is  not 
afraid  of  his  parents,  in  fact  the  unsuspecting 
child  has  no  fears  whatever;  should  the  child- 
man  have  feared  ?  He  felt  insecure  at  night 
when  the  sun  had  sunk  and  darkness  had  set  in. 
His  miserable  tent  was  exposed  to  the  prowling 
beasts.  But  when  the  morning  came,  and  in 
the  east  the  clouds  became  gilded,  and  the  sky 
grew  bright,  and  the  sun  rising,  slowly  drove 
the  clouds  before  him,  did  he  not  rejoice  ;  and 
did  he  not  forget  the  night?  An  immature 
child  takes  every  thing  seriously,  and  rarely  has 
sense  for  humor.  In  our  youth  we  are  un- 
compromisingly serious,  and  so   I  am  bold  to 


30  Spofitaneous  Religion. 

say,  the  original  man  was.  He  accepted  all 
experiences  in  the  sober  spirit  of  fatality.  The 
night  was  an  evil;  but  the  day  was  joy.  The 
thunder  was  Satan,  who  dashed  the  clouds  down 
from  the  sky,  pouring  a  flood  upon  his  frail 
tent ;  but  the  light  in  the  heaven  was  kind, 
and  kissed  away  the  clouds,  and  brought  the 
plants  out  of  the  soil,  and  breathed  fresh  red 
life  on  fruit.  To  him  the  birds  sang  their  an- 
thems and  languishingly  bade  adieu  at  the 
break  of  the  dark,  when  he  dipped  down  into 
the  underworld  and  went  out  of  sight. 

We  have  not  as  vivid  a  conception  as  the 
man  in  the  early  day  had  of  the  display  of 
power,  when  in  the  seasons,  as  they  alter- 
nated, the  powers  of  nature  swept  down  streams 
of  water  and  extinguished  the  sun,  which 
henceforward  shone  like  a  mouldering  coal, 
growing  pale  and  pallid  ;  when  the  wind  swept 
across  the  plains  and  made  them  shiver;  when, 
at  the  resuscitation  of  the  sun,  he  soon  regained 
his  strength,  and  shot  down  hot  arrows,  burn- 
ing the  parched  fields.  The  barbarian  was 
witness  to  this  play  of  Good  and  Evil.  The 
man  was  a  great  questioner,  like  our  children 
of  to-day,  who,  when  once  their  curiosity  is  a- 
roused,  have  many  questions  to  ask.  But  he 
asked  and  answered  himself.  There  was  the 
work  of  Providence ;  but  what  did  he  know  of 
Providence?      We,    in    our     dry,    philosophic 


spontaneous  Religion.  3 1 

habit,  hold  to  that  word,  and  for  want  of  a 
more  suggestive  name  use  that.  But  he 
wanted  persons,  not  names.  He  wanted  a 
soul  in  the  universe,  not  an  abstraction.  And 
so  he  made  himself  a  Father  in  Heaven — a 
name  which  we  to-day  have  not  improved 
upon.'  The  sun  is  the  good  shepherd,  who,  at 
every  rising  early  in  the  morning  drives  the 
cows,  the  clouds,  to  the  pasture.  The  thunder 
is  the  heavy  hammer  which  the  hero  of  the 
heavens  swings  to  smite  the  overbearing  sun 
of  the  noon-day.  The  waves,  throwing  them- 
selves tumultuously  in  the  sea,  are  the  steeds, 
which  wantonly  cast  up  their  heads  and  backs, 
and  are  lashed  into  obedience  by  Neptune  and 
Okeanos. 

These  features  of  poetry  and  of  personifica- 
tion  in  the   primitive   faith    might  be    appre- 

'  "  Thousands  of  years  have  passed  since  the  Aryan  nations 
separated  to  travel  to  the  north  and  the  south,  the  west  and 
the  east ;  they  have  each  formed  their  languages,  they  have 
each  founded  empires  and  philosophies,  they  have  each  built 
temples  and  razed  them  to  the  ground  ;  they  have  all  grown 
older,  and,  it  may  be,  wiser  and  better  ;  but  when  they  search 
for  a  name  for  what  is  exalted  and  yet  most  dear  to  every  one 
of  us,  when  they  wished  to  express  both  awe  and  love,  the  in- 
finite and  the  finite,  they  can  but  do  what  their  old  fathers 
did,  when  gazing  up  to  the  eternal  sky  and  feeling  the  pres- 
ence of  a  Being  as  far  as  far,  and  as  near  as  near,  can  be  ; 
they  can  but  combine  the  self-same  words  and  utter  once  more 
the  primeval  Aryan  prayer,  Heaven-Father,  in  that  form  which 
will  endure  forever  'Our  Father  which  art  in  Heaven.'" — 
Max  Mtiller  :   "  Science  of  Religion,"  p.  72. 


32  Spontaneo7is  Religion. 

hended  as  having  their  source  in  one  bent  of 
human  nature.  That  properly  they  have.  But 
there  is  a  difference  between  poetry  and  per- 
sonification. The  one  is  a  disposition,  the 
other  is  more.  The  former  ghdes  easily  into 
the  latter.  Though  it  is  an  earlier  fact  of  ex- 
perience to  say  God  is  like  a  father,  it  is  trans- 
formed into  a  conception  that  he  is  the  Father 
actually  in  a  later  stage.  It  is  after  a  con- 
sciousness of  an  intimate  relationship  between 
ourselves  and  God  that  we  turn  our  eyes  up- 
ward into  the  clear  blue  of  heaven,  spread  out 
our  hands,  and  cry:  "Our  Father!"  In  re- 
ligious practice  the  child-man  saw  that  father, 
heard  him.  There  was  no  delusion,  no  con- 
nivance in  his  heart,  that,  though  pleasing, 
these  fine  words  and  visions  were  nothing  but 
words  and  visions  after  all.  They  were  real  and 
serious.  The  entire  mental  world,  every  thing, 
was  taken  at  first  hand  in  unquestioned  verity. 
Now,  in  the  beginning  of  the  history  of  reli- 
gion (and  I  am  going  backward  very  far  into 
the  primitive  times,  where  records  fail  us)  all 
psychical  phenomena  were  reflex,  similar  with 
reference  to  their  mode  of  origination  to  the 
mechanical  contraction  of  the  biceps  after 
external  irritation  ;  they  were  uncalculated, 
simple,  immediate  effects  of  causes,  which 
carried  in  themselves  the  provocations  of  ap- 
propriate actions. 


spontaneous  Religion.  '^'^ 

How  do  we  move  ?  How  do  we  see?  Do  I 
think  and  precalculate  every  time  I  move  my 
hand  or  my  foot?  Do  I  know,  every  time  I 
see,  of  the  mechanical  work  done,  that  I  am 
putting  my  eye  into  a  proper  position,  so  that 
the  rays  of  light  can  impinge  on  my  retina 
and  my  optic  nerve  can  carry  the  sensation  to 
the  brain?  Nay,  do  not  these  events  take 
place  without  consulting  me  at  all,  and  I  must 
see,  whether  I  will  or  not  ?  I  touch  by  accident 
a  burning  coal ;  I  pull  back  my  hand.  I  have 
not  thought  of  the  matter ;  I  have  pulled  back 
my  hand  even  before  I  was  aware  of  the 
danger. 

The  aboriginal  man  did  not  speculate;  he 
was  happily  ignorant  of  complicated  systems, 
of  dogmas  and  doctrines.  He  had  no  theory  of 
nature  ;  he  was,  in  fact,  in  every  respect,  bound 
up  with  nature.  Thousands  of  experiences  and 
events  came  upon  him  as  so  many  occasions, 
demanding  him  to  act.  He  led  a  sort  of  intui- 
tive life,  and  his  activities  were  all  spontane- 
ous. He  was  a  child  of  nature,  that  knew  not 
of  obligations  and  still  was  held  down  to  the 
laws  which  he  thought  he  could  transcend. 
His  knowledge  was  only  an  aggregate  of  de- 
tails, presenting  themselves  singly  in  a  detached 
manner  from  day  to  day.  He  had  no  science, 
not  the  faintest  suggestion  of  a  generalization 
other  than  that  which  his  sensuous  experience 


34  Spontaneous  Religion. 

would  suggest  as  profitable  and  harmless. 
Experience  was  reflexive  ;  in  these  his  mind 
responded  promptly  at  the  incentive  of  a 
sensation.  It  was  a  regular  life.  Despite  cru- 
dities and  barbarities,  it  was  a  life  such  as  was 
led  according  to  the  dictates  of  an  organic 
constitution,  and  this  is  normal. 

But  an  ideal  which  I  like  to  indulge  in,  is  that 
the  final  religion,  too,  will  be  marked  by  this 
feature,  the  ennobled  conduct  will  be  sponta- 
neous, at  any  rate  that  we  are  approximating  to 
this  soul  condition.  Culture  refines,  spiritual- 
izes. If  the  health  of  body  conditions  the 
health  of  mind,  why  should  the  soul  be  de- 
barred from  reciprocating  at  some  time?  The 
virtues  often  sustain  our  physical  life.  What 
self-subjugation  can  do  by  repression  is  ac- 
complished gracefully  and  to  more  lasting 
good  by  the  slower  effect  of  moral  discipline. 
There  is  to  every  observing  person  a  charm  in 
the  offer  of  sympathy ;  the  worth  of  it  lies  not 
in  the  assistance  rendered,  but  in  the  fact  that 
it  came  without  solicitation  or  appeal,  that  it 
was  spontaneous.  The  child's  confidence  in 
the  first  best  man  is  fascinating.  The  manner 
in  which  it  confides  its  little  affairs  is  a  charm- 
ing simplicity,  which  we  fain  would  have  chil- 
dren keep  for  their  maturer  years.  But,  when 
these  maturer  years  come,  if  all  this  has 
not  been  outgrown,  we  look  eagerly  for   the 


spontaneous  Religion.  35 

manifestation  of  heartiness.  Still  it  can  be  seen 
sometimes  in  old  people  who  have  happily- 
preserved  their  good  nature  despite  bitter  ex- 
perience, and  there  are  some  who  have  main- 
tained a  sovereign  freedom  in  manhood.  These 
might  be  observed  with  benefit  if  we  wish  to 
conceive  what  is  promised  the  good  man  of 
the  future  will  be. 

Experience  disciplines,  and  we  are  chast- 
ened organically  as  well  as  ethically.  What 
accumulation  of  discipline  and  chastening  is 
likely  to  accrue  to  us  in  the  long  history  of 
culture  !  Here,  then,  is  the  ideal  of  the  heir 
of  the  prolonged  discipline,  historical,  many- 
sided,  and  universal.  He  will  respond  to 
worthy  suggestions,  as  the  fibres  of  the  violin 
respond  to  the  vibration  of  a  note  of  the 
strings,  and  there  will  be  consonance  with  the 
outer  world,  which  he  will  cultivate,  such  as 
poets  dream  of.  The  deed  will  follow  the  ef- 
ficient thought,  the  act  will  be  the  associate 
of  the  sentiment.  True  thought,  feeling, 
and  deed  will  be  one.  There  will  be  a  spon- 
taneity in  all  departments  of  human  activ- 
ity, and  it  will  not  be  the  labored  result 
of  cogitation  and  of  calculation,  but  each 
righteous  man,  being  inured  through  his  en- 
tire being  to  the  conception  and  creation  of 
worthy  doings,  will  be  transformed  into  a 
spiritualized  organism,  as  it  were,  where  there 


36  Sp07itancotLS  Religion. 

shall  be  a  regular  and  a  conscious  and  on  all 
sides  self-realizing  manhood.'  He  Avill  know 
that  there  can  be  no  a  stop  at  the  acquisition 
of  merely  formal  truth,  and  that  nothing  is 
complete  till  the  thought  is  transformed  into 
deed.  Then  the  truth  shall  be  understood,  which 
now  is  simply  a  glimmering  ideal,  that  desiring 
the  good  has  no  merit,  and  none  must  content 
themselves  with  simple  desire  ;  but  rather  that 
the  thought,  barren  of  action,  is  inane  and 
worthless,  even  though  it  plead  its  intrinsic 
Avorth  ever  so  much.  The  man  of  the  future 
will  know  the  good  thought  can  never  be  bar- 
ren, but  has  its  own  vitality  and  energy,  which 
urge  it  to  the  carrying  out  of  it.  There  will  be 
an  immediateness  between  the  intuition  and 
the  motive.  There  will  be  no  interval  between 
them.  All  right  action  will  be  spontaneous  and 
the  religious  man  shall  set  into  scene  his  relig- 
ious life,  striving  to  attain  to  organic  certainty, 
such  as  creation  now  is  pursuing  in  the  broad 
realm  of  being.^     There  will  be  thus  in  every 

'  Frederic  Harrison,  in  a  brilliant  rejoinder  to  Herbert 
Spencer's  Euhenierism,  says :  "  The  final  religion  of  en- 
lightened man  is  the  systematized  and  scientific  form  of  the 
spontaneous  religion  of  natural  man." — "  The  Ghost  of  Re- 
ligion "  in  "  Nature  and  Reality  of  Religion  :  A  Controversy," 
p.  47. 

^  In  "  Beracholh,"  xo,  a,  an  analogy  is  drawn  between  God 
and  the  human  soul,  which  is  an  evidence  of  the  conception  of 
the  primitive  purity  of  maia's  nature  :  "As  God  fills  the  uni- 
verse, so  the  soul  fills  the  body  of  man.     As  God  maintains 


spontaneous  Religion.  2>7 

man  of  such  a  robust  type  a  microcosm,'  a  small 
world,  sufificient  in  itself,  and  will  exemplify  the 
divine  thought  as  it  never  before  was  exempli- 
fied, law  in  its  highest  characterization,  the  di- 
vine thought  continuously  productive,  a  glor- 
ious seed  that  shall  thrive,  and  there  will  be 
little  to  hinder  its  growth  and  unfolding, 
save  the  will  of  God. 

The  history  of  the  religious  life  of  mankind 
begins  and  ends  with  spontaneousness.  But  the 
first  chapter  is  sensuous  spontaneity,  the  imme- 
diate action  of  the  senses,  rising  slowly  out  of 
the  grossness  into  the  spiritual.  But  out  of  the 
chrysalis  another  being  is  arising  with  the  same 
body,  but  transformed,  passing  through  the 
various  stages  of  transformation  into  a  condi- 

the  universe,  so  the  soul  maintains  the  body.  As  God  is  pure, 
&,o  the  soul  is  pure.  As  God  resides  in  the  centre  of  the  world, 
so  also  the  soul  is  the  innermost  principle  of  human  life. 
How  proper  then,  that  the  soul,  similar  to  the  divine  soul  in 
these  five  excellencies,  shall  adore  it :  '  Praise,  O  my  soul, 
the  Lord  ! '  " 

From  this  passage,  of  which  many  similar  ones  could  be 
cited,  also  this  can  be  gathered  :  Jewish  theology  does  not 
wish  to  do  away  with  natural  religion.  Nay,  it  makes  it  its 
own.  The  native  instinct  is  acknowledged  as  divine,  and  the 
physical  life  of  man  is  made  correlative  to  the  divine.  An- 
imism in  the  highest  degree  and  theology  are  harmonized  in 
Judaism. 

^  This  thought  Salomo  ibn  Gabirol  anticipated  long  ago. 
See  his  "  Fons  Vitae,"  §  9,  Man  is  an  "  01am  Katon." — Cf. 
Dr.  B.  Beer,  in  Frankel,  Monatssckrift  filr  Geschichte  u. 
Wissenchaft  des  yudcnthums,  1854,  P-  249. 


38  spontaneous  Religion. 

tion  in  which  the  new  living  is  no  more  simply 
the  product  of  organism.  Dependent  upon  and 
having  its  possibilities  circumscribed  by  it,  but 
transcending  the  realm  of  body,  it  will  have  a 
more  spiritualized  character.  Muscles  and 
blood  and  brain  and  nerves  are  deprived  of  their 
ofifice  as  informers  and  advisers,  and  are  pressed 
into  service  to  do  that  which  the  emancipated 
spirit  commands  by  its  sovereign  will. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE    UNIVERSAL  RELIGION  AND 
THE   SECTS. 

Speaking  conventionally  we  look  for  acts  and 
not  for  intentions.  The  standard  by  which  the 
state  adjudges  citizens  has  had  mischievous  imi- 
tation. The  judgments  of  the  practical  and  of 
the  sentimental  diverge.  The  good  citizen  is 
not  implicitly  entitled  to  credit  for  religious- 
ness ;  for  all  common  purposes  the  community 
is  content  with  a  temperament  which  simply 
refrains  from  evil  doings  and  makes  no  effort 
to  indued  the  mxcritorious  to  voluntary 
righteousness.  The  civil  and  economic  life 
is  detective  besides  being  protective  ;  but 
detective  in  the  derogatory  sense  of  the  word. 
The  state  cares  not  to  award  honor  to  the  law- 
abiding,  but  much  more  to  visit  the  law-break- 
ers with  the  weight  of  its  corrective  authority. 
Religion  cannot  carry  out  its  condemnation  as 
severely,  but  av/ards  praise  more  effectively. 
Religion  has  no  means  of  executing  its  judg- 
ments. It  lacks  disciplinary  and  executive 
power.  Religion  once  had  it,  and  that  time  of 
the  union  of  church  and  state  was  very  sad. 

39 


40    The  Universal  Religion  and  the  Sects. 

Historians  who  narrate  it  would  be  glad  to 
slur  it  over.  It  has  been  found  better  to  dis- 
arm religion  of  administrative  power.  Since 
then  religions  are  less  of  a  disturbing  element. 
We  feel  now  that  there  is  something  besides 
court  and  legislature  that  we  are  responsible 
to.  We  owe  allegiance  to  our  sect.  It  seems 
as  if  sectarian  dictation  were  exerting  no  mean 
strength,  and  to  many  it  is  a  heavy  cudgel. 
Nay,  most  people  have  grown  rather  fond  of 
following  it. 

Sects  are  the  diverse  attempts  of  the  human 
mind  to  solve  the  problems  of  being.  In  a 
common  way,  we  might  say,  sects  are  so  many 
classes  into  which  humanity  has  divided  itself. 
The  most  matured  minds  and  some  who  are 
still  worrying  along  with  the  elementaries,  are 
learning  the  lessons  of  religion.  Providence 
has  wisely  graded  the  lessons ;  but  in  the  end 
the  knowledge  will  be  the  same.  Sects  are  pro- 
pedeutic. The  one,  in  his  crude  way,  tries  his 
stunted  brain  on  the  problems  so  mysterious 
and  impenetrable.  Sir  Samuel  Baker  asked 
Commoro,  chief  of  the  Latooki :  "  Have  you 
no  belief  in  the  future  existence  after  death?" 
"Existence  after  death,"  says  the  poor  fellow, 
"  how  can  that  be?  Can  a  dead  man  get  out 
of  his  grave,  unless  we  dig  him  out  ?  " 

"  Do  you  not  know,"  persists  the  inquisitive 
and  dogmatizing  traveller,  "do  you  not  know 


The  U7iiversal  Religion  and  the  Sects.   4 1 

that  there  is  a  spirit  within  you  more  than 
flesh  ;  do  you  not  dream  and  wander  in  thought 
to  distant  places  in  your  sleep,  nevertheless 
your  body  rests  in  one  spot.  How  do  you  ac- 
count for  this  ?  "  Commoro:  "  Well,  how  do 
jj'^?/!  account  for  it?  It  is  a  thing  I  cannot  un- 
stand  ;  it  occurs  to  me  every  night."  He  brings 
him  the  message  of  St.  Paul ;  he  tells  him  of  the 
decaying  seed, and  how  it  willrise  againin  all  the 
glory  of  its  array.  And  the  child-man  answers  : 
"  Exactly  so,  that  I  understand.  But  the 
original  grain  does  not  rise  again  ;  it  rots,  like 
the  dead  man,  and  is  ended.  The  fruit  pro- 
duced is  not  the  same  grain  that  we  buried, 
but  the  prod^iction  of  that  grain.  But  my 
children  grow  up  like  the  fruit  of  the  grain."  * 
Perhaps  some  of  us  would  answer  no  different- 
ly ;  still  there  is  a  long  stretch  of  civilization 
between  the  savage  and  the  present  state  of 
culture. 

It  stands  in  the  way  of  a  proper  and  just 
conception  of  religion  to  deny  that  the  savage 
has  a  mind,  latent  with  rational  suggestions  ; 
to   say  that  his  guesses  at  the  universal  truth, 

^  Quoted  in  Herbert  Spencer,  "  Ecclesiastical  Institutions," 
Pt.  VI.  of  "  Principles  of  Sociology,"  p.  672. 

Incidentally  let  us  cite  analogous  arguments  of  the  Talmud, 
"  Kethuboth,"  67  ;  "  Sanhedrin,"  go,  b.;  "  Sabbath,"  30,  b. 

For  another  curious  instance  of  primitive  philosophy  of  reli- 
gion, see  Sir  John  Lubbock,  "Origin  of  Civilization,"  New 
York,  1870,  p.  200. 


42     TJie  Universal  Religion  anel  the  Sects. 

which  he  made  in  his  day,  with  his  intellectual 
means,  as  we  make  them  in  our  way,  are  mean- 
ingless babble.  It  certainly  is  improper  to  say 
that  his  practices,  which  he  indulged  in  fervent- 
ly, were  criminal,  simply  because  we  do  not  un- 
derstand them,  and  because  they  have  not  our 
sympathy.  The  religion  of  the  savage  sufifices 
for  the  purposes  of  his  life,  the  activity  of 
which  is  at  any  rate  circumscribed.  He  is  with- 
held from  doing  mischief  to  his  companions  by 
considerations,  and  it  is  wrong  to  reprehend 
them  dogmatically.  They  are,  notwithstand- 
ing their  crudeness  and  heterodoxy,  valid 
enough  to  bring  into  the  tribe  a  certain  sense 
of  order  and  mutual  understanding,  even  of 
compact  and  of  fraternity.  Still  such  are  our 
received  notions,  that  we  may  be  aware  of  the 
fact  that  he  often  has  a  high  regard  for  a  promise 
given,  and  he  may  thus  give  evidence  of  an  in- 
tuitive humaneness,  which  is  undisguised,  being 
the  voice  of  purity,  a  divine  soul-life.  Still 
this  all  goes  for  naught.  The  least,  however, 
we  can  say  for  it,  and  we  have  said  a  great 
truth:  "The  religion  cannot  rise  above  the 
state  of  the  votary."  ' 

Max  Miiller,  prophetic  of  the  glorious  future 
to  dawn  for  mankind,  and  appreciative  of  all 
phases    of     religious    history    declares,     that 

>  Emerson,  "  Conduct  of  Life,"  Essay  on  Worship,  Works, 
Boston,  1885,  Vol.  VI.,  p.  196. 


The  Universal  Religion  and  the  Sects.    43 

"  there  never  has  been  any  religion  consisting 
exclusively  of  the  pure  and  simple  tenets  of 
natural  religion,"  '  and  that  "  the  tenets  of 
natural  religion,  though  by  themselves  -they 
never  constituted  a  real  historical  religion,  sup- 
plied the  only  ground  on  which  revealed 
religion  can  stand ;  the  only  soil  where  it  can 
strike  root,  and  from  which  it  can  receive  nour- 
ishment and  life."^  By  it  he  means  more  of 
the  natural  disposition  of  the  religious  faculty 
more  than  a  preexistent  fund  of  religion,  which 
is  self-sufficient.  He  has  in  mind  a  demonstrable 
fact  that  sects  have  validity  in  so  far  only  as 
they  are  in  harmony  with  and  corroborate,  not 
an  a  priori,  primeval,  and  revealed  dispensa- 
tion, but  an  intuition,  which,  being  an  organic 
capacity,  permeates  and  seeks  its  coordinate, 
and  flies  from  what  it  feels  to  be  inherently 
hostile. 

'   "Science  of  Religion,"  p.  44. 

"  Ibid.,  p.  48. 

In  Sluczki's  edition  of  "  Choboth  Haleboboth,"  by  Bachja 
ibn  Pakudah,  B.  Goldberg  gives  a  definition  of  "Emunah," 
which  is  extensively  employed  by  the  Jewish  philosophers. 
"  Glauben  "  conveys  a  meaning  different  from  tha.t  of  reli- 
gion, and  that  again  is  different  from  faith,  (p.  xi.)  Religion 
suggests  authority,  by  the  criteria  of  truth  ;  Glauben,  belief 
implies  consultation  of  reason  without  questioning  special 
revelation  ;  faith,  renunciation  of  personal  choice,  along  with 
trust  in  a  benevolent  power  ;  here  authority  of  dispensation 
is  external,  and  the  suggestive  aspect  is  predominantly  emo- 
tional.    "  Emunah  "  is  the  first. 


44    The  Universal  Religion  and  the  Sects. 

"  Our  birth  is  but  a  sleep  and  a  forgetting  ; 
The  soul,  that  rises  with  us,  our  life's  star, 

Hnth  had  elsewhere  its  setting, 

And  Cometh  from  afar. 

Not  in  entire  forgetfulness, 

And  not  in  utter  nakedness. 
But  trailing  clouds  of  glory  do  we  come 
From  God,  who  is  our  home."  ' 

The  rejection  of  a  religion  and  the  dispar- 
agement of  it  by  votaries  of  another,  takes 
place  within  limited  capacities.  The  univer- 
salist  despises  nothing  and  finds  causes  for  the 
being  of  every  phenomenon.  There  is  nothing 
concerning  which  he  will  moralize  and  declare 
that  it  was  unhappy,  or  a  failure.  For,  in  the 
large  area  that  he  surveys,  in  which  all  indus- 

'  Wordsworth. — This  thought  of  a  precxistent  state,  which 
in  philosophy  might  be  termed  original  mode  of  soul-being,  is 
found  often  in  the  Talmud. 

The  Talmud  holds  "  that  there  is  a  separate  heaven  for  the 
souls,  before  they  begin  their  earthly  career." — "  Chagiga," 
12,  b.  "  The  soul  brings  from  its  pre-natal  abode  a  dower  of 
conceptions,  whose  original  clearness,  however,  is  lost  at  the 
entrance  into  bodily  life." — "Nidda,"  31,  a. — "When  the 
child  is  born  and  enters  life,  an  angel  strikes  it  on  its  mouth, 
so  that  it   becomes   oblivious   of    its   former   knowledge." — 

"  The  soul  has  previously  known  all  which  it  experiences 
in  this  life  in  a  previous  existence  ;  the  sensuous  impressions 
are  merely  the  occasions  or  opportunities  by  which  the  soul  is 
reminded  of  these  forgotten  former  experiences."  Cf.  Moses 
Mendelssohn,  "  Preisschrift  Uber  die  Evidenz  in  metaphysi- 
schen  Wissenschaften,"  Schriften,  Leipzig,  1843,  Band  II.,  F. 
10.     This  may  be  occasionalism,  not  unlike  that  of  Leibnitz. 


The  Universal  Religion  and  the  Sects.    45 

trial  as  well  as  intellectual  efforts  are  included, 
he  is  aware  of  the  well-established  fact  that 
failures  are  almost  intentional,  as  much  as  it  is 
proper  and  well-intended  that  the  little  child 
should  stumble  and  keep  on  falling  until  the 
chubby  body  has  learned  to  keep  its  equilibrium. 
The  intellectual  immaturity  of  mankind  must 
be  exercised  and  taught  in  mental  stumbling 
that  it  shall  prepare  the  growing  intellect  to 
subsist  on  its  strength,  and  trust  in  its  mental 
poise.'  And  thus  it  does  not  surprise  us  to 
hear  that  the  Persians  denounce  and  stigmatize 
the  Buddhists,  and  these  again  vice  versa.  The 
former,  worshipping  Ahura,  the  light,  the 
Spirit  of  the  Good,  the  joy-bearing  sun,  with 
the  express  declaration  that  they  antagonize, 
nay  spurn  the  teaching  of  Boddhisatva,  it  is 
natural  and  in  the  spirit  of  sectarianism  a 
justifiable  policy  on  the  part  of  the  Buddhists 
to  cry  horror  at  the  innovators  of  their  faith. 
Ahura  was  to  them  the    Evil,  the    bearer    of 

'An  interesting  illustration  is  the  remark  made  by  R, 
Jaabez  of  Spain.  He  thanks  God  that  the  Jews  have  been  put 
into  the  midst  of  Christians  (with  full  knowledge  of  the  bitter 
treatment  they  received  at  their  hands).  Christians,  he  says, 
believe  in  the  creation  of  the  world  by  God,  in  the  examplars  of 
the  prophets,  in  the  divine  authorship  of  the  Bible,  in  future 
recompense  in  heaven  and  hell,  and  in  the  resurrection  of  the 
dead.  This  fact  brings  the  Christians  nearer  to  Judaism  than 
are  the  heathens.  Besides,  if  the  Jews  had  been  surrounded 
by  sensual  heathens,  there  might  have  been  inducement  offered 
to  waver. — "  Ma'amar  Ho-achdulh,"  3. 


46     The  Universal  Religion  and  the  Sects. 

plague  and  of  death,  the  adversary  of  men  and 
of  the  Devas.  The  Persians  were  not  slow  to 
return  the  compliment.  Up  to  this  day  it  is  a 
pious  belief  amongst  them  that  the  Devas,  like 
goblins  and  spectres,  haunt  the  abodes  of  men, 
lurking  to  do  mischief  and  harm.' 

Again,  while  in  one  sense  there  obtains  an 
irreconcilable  enmity  between  religions,  there 
sometimes  occurs  a  strange  toleration  which, 
however,  is  not  indicative  of  any  broader  com- 
prehension of  the  import  of  religion.  The  Chris- 
tians of  the  first  century,  for  instance,  though 
Christianity  must  have  appeared  undisguisedly 
as  a  protest  against  the  prevailing  polytheism, 
were  received  comparatively  "well.  But  the 
explanation  is,  that  it  was  the  policy  of  the 
bishops,  even  of  some  of  the  Church  fathers,  to 
make  concessions  to  the  state  religion,  and  it 
happened  not  infrequently  that  an  emperor 
was  admitted  into  the  hybrid  pantheon.  The 
Christians  attended  pagan  services  almost  as 
much  as  the  synagogues.  Among  patristic 
curiosities  the  bland  philosophy  is  not  a  little 
interesting,  by  which  the  early  Fathers  of  the 
Church  strove  to  prove  that  the  gods  of  Rome 
and  of  Greece  were  real  beings,  existing  as 
much  as    the  Son  of  God,  reserving  the   dis- 

'  "  Yasna,"  XXX.,  5  (Gatha  Ahunavaili)  in  Haug's  "  Es- 
says on  the  Parsees,"  London,  1884,  p.  150;  also/,  c,  p. 
287,  ff. 


The  Ufiiversal  Religion  and  the  Sects.  47 

distinction,  of  course,  that  these  are  inferior  and 
constrained  to  yield  precedence  to  the  heir  pre- 
sumptive. You  see  orthodoxy  is  here  playing 
with  fire. 

Now,  there  is  a  primitive  revelation.  Let 
me  remark  that  by  primitive  revelation  I  mean, 
not  the  revelation  on  Mt.  Sinai,  and  by  primi- 
tive tradition,  of  which  we  shall  have  occasion 
to  speak  later  on,  is  not  meant  the  Biblical 
tradition.  Both  are  much  earlier,  in  fact  the 
earliest  possible,  at  the  very  beginning  of 
things,  when  the  first  man  was  fashioned  by 
hand  of  Providence.  Says  Dr.  Wise  :'  "Knowl- 
edge precedes  science  and  cognition  is  prior  to 
philosophy.  Mankind  knows  vastly  more  than 
science  and  philosophy  have  utilized  and  sys- 
tematized .  .  .  The  entire  material  of  philoso- 
phy in  all  its  disciplines  consists  after  all  of  the 
spontaneous  productions  of  the  mind.  Philoso- 
phy discovered  the  form,  it  invented  not  the 
substance  of  its  contents."  Again:  "The 
natural  man  is  the  transition  from  the  lowest  to 
the  highest  degree  of  self-consciousness  and 
morality  in  the  man  of  culture  and  civilization, 
the  man  of  history.  It  is  all  one  first  cause, 
developing  gradually  its  various  functions  in 
the  progression  of  evolutions.  It  is  all  self- 
conscious  in  the   first  cause  to  become  asrain 

o 
'  Dr.  I.  M.  Wise  "Cosmic  God,"  Cincinnati,  1876,  p.  150  ; 
and  compare  "  Agreements  and  Disagreements,"  p.  14, 


48    The  Universal  Religion  and  the  Sects. 

self-conscious  in  man.  It  is  also  the  philo- 
sophical foundation  of  moral  theology,  without 
ignoring  one  fact  of  science."'  In  this  primi- 
tive revelation  we  find  the  guarantee  of  that 
faith,  which  bears  in  its  lap,  seed  like,  the  crea- 
tions of  peace  and  of  good  will.' 

It  is  well  known  that  it  is  maintained  with 
respect  to  this  original  dispensation,  by  those, 
who  conceive  it  to  have  taken  place  in  an 
actual,  tutorial  communication,  that  God  has 
withdrawn  this  gift  now.  He  once  gave  it,  but 
owing  to  the  sinfulness  of  man,  he  has  deprived 
mankind  of  it.  The  question  naturally  suggests 
itself,  of  what  use  was  it  then  ?  And  a  useless 
thing  like  that,  inefficient  to  accomplish  the 
purpose,  for  which  it  was  intended,  was  it 
divine?  And  can  God  proceed  in  a' manner, 
which  in  a  pedagogue  we  would  find  fault 
with  ?     Mankind  erred,  let  us  say.     It  was   a 

'  Salotno  ibn  Gabirol  says  :  "  The  native  rationality  of  man 
is  related  to  faith  as  the  head  is  related  to  the  body.  With  the 
absence  of  the  one,  the  other  is  made  impossible." — "  Mibchar 
Hap'ninim,"  No.  32.  (Engl,  translation  by  Rev.  D.  A.  Asher, 
London,  1859.)  Also  :  "A  man's  faith  is  perfect  then  only 
when  his  reason  is  perfect." — Z.  c.  No.  23. 

See  PhiHppsohn,  "  Israelitische  Religionslehre,  Leipzig, 
1867,  I.,  p.  35.  The  Jewish  dispensation  demands  investiga- 
tion before  acceptance.  Its  principles  should  be  tested  by 
every  one,  both  by  reason  and  by  considerations  of  afhnities 
and  sympathy. — Cf.  Saadja,  "  Emunolh  Wedeoth,"  §  17; 
Maimonides,  "More  Nebuchim,"  L,  50;  IL,  40;  Albo, 
"  Ikkarim,"  Part  L 


The  Universal  Religion  and  the  Sects.    49 

natural  error,  for  mankind  was  ignorant,  at  any 
rate  is  heir  to  foibles,  and  this  eternity  of  grop- 
ing is  its  punishment  !  Scarcely  commensur- 
ate, hardly  just  !  Still  such  a  man  as  Gladstone 
holds  to  the  doctrine  with  tenacity,  and  men  of 
the  Huxley  and  Max  Miiller  type  have  coped 
with  him  in  vain. 

It  is  a  fascination  of  pessimism.  Because 
some  are  listless,  or  (we  are  ready  to  say)  most 
people  are  not  inured  to  the  appreciation  of 
the  lofty  doctrines  of  religion,  as  ideally  con- 
ceived, or  as  theologically  maintained,  faith  is  a 
make-shift,  a  refuge,  a  compromise,  at  best,  for 
the  ills  of  life.  It  is  a  straw,  thrown  out  into 
our  eventful  career  to  save  us ;  but  to  those 
who  reach  out  for  it  with  uncertain  hands, 
and  have  not  learned  the  authorized  manner  of 
seizing  hold  of  it,  belief  and  faith  may  turn  to 
be  a  thin  reed,  that  pierces  their  hands.  To  find 
a  logical  basis  for  a  religion  of  disparagement 
is  difficult.  The  seeming  listlessness  of  the 
mass  of  people  to  the  holier  conceptions  is  ex- 
plained by  the  general  status  of  their  intellectu- 
ality. There  is  a  direct  ratio  between  culture 
and  religion,  just  as  there  is  between  culture 
and  optimism.  By  as  much  as  we  attain  to  en- 
larged knowledge,  by  so  much  we  dismiss  the 
suspicion  that  there  is  any  thing  arbitrary  in  the 
government  of  the  universe.  The  truly  cultured, 
as  well  as  the  truly  righteous,  are  confident. 


50    The  Universal  Religio7i  and  the  Sects. 

The  primitive  child  of  the  steppes  of  Africa 
and  of  the  luxuriant  wilds  of  the  islands  of  the 
Pacific  has  a  similar  and  not  much  more  dis- 
heartening fancy.  The  great  unseen  spirit 
once  moved  across  the  heavens  and  set  a  great 
heap  of  fir  brush  into  the  sky,  lit  it  with  his 
everlastingly  burning  torch,  and  swept  forever 
out  of  sight  of  the  tribe,  and  ever  since  the 
sun  shines  and  glows  and  burns  the  parched 
fields.  Here  is  Gladstone's  primitive  com- 
munication in  its  original  and  more  natural 
instance.  As  here  the  savage  supposes  himself 
grievously  abandoned,  so  Gladstone  feels  con- 
strained to  have  unending  sympathy  and  com- 
miseration for  orphaned  humanity  which  has 
been  set  afloat  in  the  sea  of  life,  without 
compass,  without  guide,  to  drift,  destined  to 
sink ! 

Is  it  true  ?  Can  it  be  true  that  in  this  world 
in  which,  out  of  every  blade  of  grass,  in  the 
complex  of  existences,  in  the  harmony  of 
powers,  in  the  peace  of  the  spiritual  life  of 
humanity,  in  the  grand  concerns  by  which 
these  shall  be  perpetuated,  viz.,  by  the  recog- 
nition and  enhancement  of  them  through 
man's  religious  conduct,  there  all  at  once  could 
loom  up  a  plaguing  God  ?  The  whole  world 
is  replete  with  evidence  that  it  is  permeated 
with  the  spirit  of  a  benevolent  God.  Is  it 
possible  that  mankind  is  bound  to  be  forever 


The  Universal  Religion  and  the  Sects.    5 1 

dull  to  the  thousand  voices,  which  from  every 
atom  of  created  things  declare  to  him  who  will 
listen  the  wisdom  and  the  love  of  God  ?  Does 
it  not  behoove  us  to  have  sympathy  with  the 
tardy  children,  and  look  more  kindly  on  their 
tentative  faith  as  a  striving  after  the  better, 
and  upon  their  puerile  solution  of  mysteries  as 
efforts  of  mind  which  are  promising  and  as 
earnest  as  are  our  own  ? 

Primitive  revelation  !  It  is  a  good  doctrine. 
Break  off  the  bands ;  let  the  sweetness  of  it 
flow.  God  has  revealed  himself,  and,  like  the 
sleepers  that  waken  out  of  their  slumber,  one 
human  being  wakes  up  after  another,  and  sees 
the  morning  dawn.  That  moment  of  awaken- 
ing is  the  moment  of  revelation.  It  came  to 
some  in  days  gone  by  ;  it  arrives  to  some  now. 
I  can  well  understand  how  religion  originates. 
I  notice  the  struggles  of  men  who  move  in 
their  respective  spheres  of  life  and  engage  in 
their  work  with  such  an  ardent  spirit,  that  they 
might  be  free  from  reprehension.  I  notice  the 
noble  yearning  of  men  to  attain  gradually  to  a 
state  in  which  there  shall  be  serene  content- 
ment. And  in  this  continuous  effort  -for  the 
noble  and  pure,  I  think  I  see  a  whole  cycle  of 
revelation,  a  never-ending  series  of  divine  in- 
struction, which  shall  have  its  most  felicitous 
climax.  This  is  the  hopefulness  of  religion  ; 
this  is  the  faith,  the  inspiration  that  will  once 


5  2    The  Universal  Religion  and  the  Sects. 

conquer  the  world.  If  there  has  been  listless- 
ness,  it  was  because  the  holiest  offices  of 
religion  were  delegated  to  one — that  he  per- 
formed them  for  the  many.  Out  of  the  mass  let 
the  individuals  rise  !  From  conventionalities, 
which  prolonged  habits  of  representativeness 
have  engendered,  let  each  one  step  out  in  the 
panoply  of  his  individuality  !  Let  each  for 
himself  take  up  the  task  of  right  doing  !  And 
over  this  process  of  individualization  the  liber- 
ating spirit  hovers,  disengaging  from  the  mind 
of  men  the  falsehoods,  which  of  necessity  go 
along  with  imcomplete  culture,  and  giving 
grand  exposition  of  the  divine  powers  in  man. 
This  is  primitive  revelation,  primitive  as  is  the 
soul  of  man,  original  as  is  his  duty  of  labor,  that 
in  return  for  the  work  of  his  hands  he  gathers 
his  food  out  of  the  lap  of  Providence. 

But  there  is  another  fancy  which  stands  in 
the  way  of  understanding  what  is  meant  by 
religion.  It  is  said  :  "  This  is  the  age  of  iron  ; 
the  age  of  gold  is  gone.  The  happy  time  of 
innocence  is  no  more ;  we  live  in  the  midst  of 
a  depraved  mankind  that  has  forgotten  the 
command  of  God,  and  has  not  yet  learned  to 
know  him.  Religion,  pure  religion,  once  was, 
but  you  will  never  see  it  again."  Reville  re- 
marks'  very  pertinently  that  this  reminds  him 
of  the  anecdote  concerning  good  aged  St. 
*  "Prolegomena  to  the  History  of  Religions,"  p.  59. 


The  Universal  Religion  and  the  Sects.    53 

Cyprian,  who  wailed  over  the  approaching  end 
of  the  world.  The  fruits  diminished  in  bloom  ; 
they  had  no  longer  the  flavor  they  once  had, 
and  which  in  his  younger  years  he  had  relished 
so  much.  Alas  !  poor  St.  Cyprian  had  lost  his 
teeth,  his  palate  was  worn,  and  his  eyes  were 
failing.  Deplorable  delusion  this,  to  imagine 
the  freshness  is  gone  out  of  life  when  a  little 
stimulus  to  our  own  eyes  and  more  cheerful- 
ness in  our  mental  vision  would  bring  it  home 
to  us  so  readily. 

The  presumption  is,  the  origin  of  religion 
was  a  glorious  shower  of  faith,  which  at  once 
has  ceased.  Mankind  started  with  a  percep- 
tion of  truth,  and  its  history  is  a  continuous 
series  of  deterioration,  a  waning  day.  You 
see  where  this  leads  to.  It  takes  out  of  the 
midst  of  men  all  incentives,  all  ambition,  ener- 
vates men  in  their  work  in  all  occupations  (for 
there  is  an  intimacy  between  the  intellectual 
and  the  industrial  activities,  as  is  just  now  be- 
coming more  recognized).  Deny  a  man  men- 
tal possibilities,  and  you  have  done  the  next 
best  thing  not  only  to  stunt  his  intellect 
entirely,  but  to  take  from  him  all  that  is  the 
worth  of  his  life,  which  he  himself  has  put  on  it. 
Say  to  mankind  there  is  nothing  great  in  store 
for  it  to  accomplish,  that,  in  fact,  the  valuable 
things  it  has  are  slipping  out  of  its  hands,  and 
that  it  cannot  prevent  it  ;   say  to  me  that  my 


54    The  Universal  Religion  and  the  Sects. 

life-blood  is  oozing  out  of  me,  and  that  there  is 
no  saving  of  me.  I  will  hold  myself  pious  to 
resign  myself  to  the  inevitable  dissolution. 

History  shows  an  ascending  effort  for  better- 
ment. Mankind  lives  for  the  future,  and  the 
present  is  continually  opening  out  into  still 
more  promising  times.  There  is  much  pro- 
gression and  improvement,  with  abundant 
suggestions  of  better  things  to  come.  The 
ascetic  spirit  that  chews  the  cud  of  the  past 
and  blears  gloomily  into  every  new  day  as  a 
new  term  of  penalty,  has  never  accomplished 
any  thing,  and  it  is  the  blightening  spirit.  The 
ideal  drift,  which  happily  is  in  man,  those  im- 
pulses and  incentives  which  never  rest  content 
with  present  attainments,  but  are  untiring  to 
make  new  conquests  and  to  gain  greater  victo- 
ries, to  these  we  owe  all  that,  in  the  aggregate, 
makes  up  the  nobility  of  life  and  the  proud 
record  of  humanity. 

Those  are  not  fit  to  solve  the  problem  of  the 
origin  of  religion  who  ogle  sanctimoniously 
with  the  past  and  see  not  even  a  glimpse  of 
the  great  future  dawning,  and  we  accept  a 
theory  of  religion  with  hesitation  (we  cannot 
help  it)  from  such  a  source,  whose  waters  are 
so  murky.  Whatever  religious  principles  they 
present,  however  much  they  may  cry  out  in 
the  market-places  "  These  are  divine  !  "  we  re- 
fuse to  recognize  until  they  show  that  they 
imply  cheer,  promise,  hope. 


The  Universal  Religion  and  the  Sects.    5  5 

The  life  of  all  such  theories  of  religion  is 
short.  Religion  cannot  be  dealt  with  dog- 
matically. This  lesson  we  are  learning  from 
day  to  day  ;  and  the  history  of  religions,  as 
they  have  appeared,  bear  home  the  grave  les- 
son that  it  will  not  do  to  concoct  a  scheme  of 
religion  '  henceforth  to  be  abided  by  men,  or 
take  upon  themselves  the  burden  of  heresy. 
Religion  finds  its  best  expression  in  the  lives 
of  great  men,  but  no  man,  however  great,  can 
presume  to  stand  for  religion  itself  and  save 
men  the  trouble  of  reasoning  for  themselves. 

The  time  has  now  arrived  Avhen  we  have 
such  an  unfailing  trust  in  the  persistent  and 
benevolent  progress  of  the  life,  of  the  intel- 
lectual, of  the  industrial  work  of  mankind  that 
nothing  will  satisfy  us  with  respect  to  the 
highest  subject,  viz.,  that  of  religion,  except  a 
suggestion  of  a  happy  destiny.  The  religion 
which  stands  over  against  such  ideals,  as  now 

'  In  this  sense  the  passage  in  "  Berachoth,"  25,  is  to  be 
taken  :  "  Withhold  your  children  from  philosophy."  A  clear 
distinction  between  Judaism  and  philosophy  is  made  in  Mid- 
rash  Tanchuma  :  Moses  yearned  to  know  the  zvays  of  God. 
Bileam  boasted  knowing  God  himself.  Compare  also  "Exo- 
dus Rabba,"  13.  Viscount  Amberly  says  of  Positivism  : 
"  Auguste  Comte's  Positivism  is  weak,  because  he  attempted 
to  compose  a  faith  for  his  disciples  by  the  merely  arbitrary 
exercise  of  his  own  ingenuity.  He  perhaps  did  not  consider 
that  in  all  history  there  is  no  example  of  a  religion  being 
invented  hy  an  individual  thinker." — "  Analysis  of  Religious 
Belief,"  I.,  p.  194. 


56    The  Universal  Religion  and  the  Sects. 

have  proven  themselves  a  mere  alphabet  in  the 
reading  of  the  book  of  life,  is  a  sorry  parody, 
which  may  have  historic  interest,  perhaps  aes- 
thetic value,  but  no  intrinsic  worth,  and  no 
place  in  the  conviction  of  men/ 

'  KusaH. — Tell  me,  how  did  your  religion  originate,  how 
was  it  disseminated,  and  how  long  a  time  was  needed  so  that 
it  became  an  established  faith  ?  For  undoubtedly  religions 
have  their  inception  in  the  minds  of  individuals  ;  these,  de- 
voting their  powers  to  secure  domination  for  them.  They 
enlist  converts,  and  thus  enlarge  their  influence,  till,  through 
govermental  aid,  they  become  national  ? 

Master. — In  this  wise  only  administrative  principles  arise 
and  become  valid,  but  not  religion.  They  are  rules  of  con- 
duct suggested  by  reason,  and  when  these  are  gradually  per- 
fected and  obtain  general  acquiesence,  they  may  be  said  to  be 
of  divine  import.  But  divine  religion,  which  has  its  immedi- 
ate source  in  God,  is  instantaneous  in  its  birth  ij.e.,  it  is  in- 
tuitive). As  to  it  we  can  say  with  the  Bible,  just  as  at  the 
first  creative  word  of  God:  "Let  it  be,  and  it  was." — 
"  Kusari,  I.,  80. 

Compare  the  dispute  concerning  the  relative  merits  of 
philosophy  and  theology  in  "  Kusari,"  I.,  79.  See  also  "  More 
Nebuchim,"  II.,  32. 


CHAPTER  III. 

RELIGION  AND  DOGMA. 

Religion  is  originally  a  sentiment,  and 
consisted  in  the  earliest  times  of  spontaneous 
suggestions.  To  these,  as  the  source,  the 
popular  view  of  religion  can  be  traced.  But  it 
is  difificult  to  realize  how  there  can  be  a  change 
of  this  inalienable  feeling  into  a  philosophy, 
which,  by  the  fact  that  it  is  a  creation  of  our 
mind,  is  a  later  phase  of  our  spiritual  life,  no 
essential  mode  of  our  being.  It  is  not  beyond 
demonstration,  and  it  is  undeniably  an  event 
in  the  life  of  mankind,  which  obtrudes  itself 
on  our  attention,  that  there  was  a  transition 
from  an  unsophisticated  state,  in  which  reli- 
gion was  simply  an  affection,  an  organic  dispo- 
sition, into  a  condition  of  mentality  in  which, 
after  once  the  intellect  had  wakened  into  self- 
contemplation  and  discrimination  of  surround- 
ings, principles  became  articles  of  faith,  and 
were  set  down  as  letter  and  law.  There  are 
two  distinct  epochs  in  history,  that  of  emo- 
tional and  that  of  theological  religion,  the  one 
early,  the  other  later. 

57 


58  Religion  and  Dogma. 

But  let  me  say  distinctly,  I  am  not  willing 
to  admit  that  the  theological  phase  is  in  all 
matters  an  advance.  I  do  not  know  whether 
it  is  a  fanciful  prejudgment,  but  there  is  an 
element  present  in  the  sentimental  religious- 
ness of  many  people,  in  whom  I  have  had 
opportunity  to  observe  it,  which  despite  its 
crudity  makes  it  seem  to  mc  worthy  and  ac- 
ceptable. True,  it  lacks  the  finish  a  reasoned 
belief  has.  It  is  without  pretense  of  intel- 
lectuality ;  but  it  is  not  less  a  strong  faith, 
and  is  a  modest  effort  which  I  am  willing  to 
place  at  the  side  of  the  speculations  of  great 
intellects.  It  has  not  the  merit  of  being  self- 
originated  ;  but  it  is  direct  in  purpose,  and  is 
an  immediate  outflow  of  a  very  undeceiving 
source.  It  comes  unhesitatingly  from  a  warm 
heart,  and  leaps  confidently  with  one  leap  into 
the  midst  of  the  mystery  we  call  religious 
problems,  and  solves  them.  As  if  there  also  a 
loving  heart  were  pulsating.  Sometimes  I 
come  to  see  that  God  has  placed  this  yearning 
soul  in  us,  and  it  has  its  own  innocent  way 
to  come  out  from  everywhere  into  the  light 
of  day,  seeking  and  finding  God. 

Religion  is  a  child  of  our  heart,  theology 
is  a  creation  of  our  mind.  The  one  needs  a 
warm  soil,  and  thrives  only  in  the  heart  of 
man,  the  other  shuns  the  emotional  side  of  our 
make-up,  and  is  calculating,  meditative,  scien- 


Religion  and  Dogma.  59 

tific*  Religion  is  aboriginal,  theology  is  ac- 
cessory. Religion  is  an  intuition,  that  which 
was  planted  into  the  soul  of  man  at  the  time 
when  God  put  the  seed  of  life  into  the  uni- 
verse. Theology  is  the  work  of  man,  an  after- 
thought, by  which  he  endeavors  to  parody  the 
divine  spark  of  faith,  bringing  together  dry 
sticks  of  reasoning.  Religion  is  eternal ;  the- 
ology a  make-shift,  which  the  exigencies  of 
time  and  the  compelling  agents  of  Providence 
may  throw  into  a  useless  heap.  Religion  is  a 
work  of  art  which  God  wrought  into  the  spirit 
of  man  ;  theology  an  artificial  construction  of 
which  circumspection  only  can  postpone  the 
eventual   collapse. 

The  difference  is  simple  and  self-evident. 
Theologians  attempted  to  reduce  the  reli- 
gious life  to  a  schedule  of  laws,  accord- 
ing to  which  they  thought  they  could 
regulate  the  thoughts  of  people.  The  spirit, 
however,  is  impatient  of  rules  ;  there  is  no 
prescription  to  the  workings  of  the  divine. 
The  divine  has  a  way  of  its  own  ;  it  will  not 
be   hampered,   it  wants  a  clear  road   on  the 

'  "  In  peace  and  on  an  even  plain  he  walketh  with  me 
(Malachi  ii.,  6),  because  he  did  not  speculate  subtly  con- 
cerning the  ways  of  God,  just  as  Abraham  did  not." — 
"  Jalkut  Shimeoni,"  ed.  Warschau,  p.  30S,  col.  2. 

So  in  Ecclesiastes  vii.,  2g.  "  Lo,  this  only  did  I  find,  that 
God  hath  made  man  upright  ;  but  they  have  sought  for  many 
devices." 


6o  Religion  and  Dogma. 

highway  of  life.'  Though  there  is  great  re- 
spect in  the  universe  for  law,  for  order,  though 
every  atom  and  the  great  masses  of  moun- 
tains and  of  seas  obey,  though  all  creatures  and 
organisms  are  submissive  to  the  behests  of  the 
laws  of  nature,  still  the  spirit  is  emancipated, 
and  man,  in  so  far  as  he  is  inspirited,  is  free.' 

'  The  word  Ankh,  which  is  of  Egyptian  origin,  signifying 
"  life  "or  "  he  who  lives,"  "  the  Living  One,"  is  found  on  in- 
scriptions at  Pi  thorn, — vid.  Brugsch,  "  True  Story  of  the 
Exodus,"  ed.  Underwood,  Boston,  1880,  p.  217.  Compare 
with  this,  Kuttner,  "  Ha-emunah  Wehabitachon,"  p.  2,  who 
says  Anachi,  the  first  word  of  the  Ten  Commandments  :  ''  / 
am  the  Lord,"  is  deducible  from  Anch,  Plumb  line,  i.  e., 
"  similar  causes  produce  similar  effects."  Here  already,  then, 
we  have  "  law  "  as  a  fundamental  conception  of  divine  being, 
which  in  modei'n  phraseology  is  not  unlike  "the  Eternal,  not 
ourselves,  that  makes  for  righteousness,"  or  "  the  stream  of 
tendency  by  which  all  things  fulfil  the  law  of  their  being." — 
Matthew  Arnold,    "  Literature  and  Dogma,"  London,  18S3, 

P-  37- 

*  "  By  every  thing  God  pursues  his  purpose,  even  by  means 
of  a  serpent,  a  frog,  a  scorpion,  yea,  even  by  a  gnat." — 
"  Midr.  Rabba  Vajikra,"  143  a;  cf.  Ps.,  civ.,  4,  and  Sirach 
xxxix.,  36-37.     See  also  Ikkarim,  I.,  14. 

The  affinity  between  God  and  man  through  the  soul  is  made 
the  basis  of  ethics,  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  biblical  ground 
for  human  righteousness  ("  Iloly  shall  ye  be,  for  holy  am  1, 
the  Lord,"),  in  this  passage  :  "As  God  is  called  the  Merciful, 
the  Gracious,  so  also  thou  shalt  be  merciful  and  gracious,  and 
be  beneficent  to  all.  Just  as  God  is  called  righteous  in  all  His 
ways,  so  also  shalt  thou  be  righteous.  Just  as  God  is  called 
the  kind  in  all  His  doings,  so  shalt  thou  be  kind." — "  Siphri," 
Ekeb. 

The  Eternal  is  the  prototype,  to  follow  which  is  possible  for 
man,  because  the  divine  soul  resides  in  him. 


Religion  and  Dogma.  6i 

To  say  the  soul  of  man  must  feel,  think,  act 
as  theology  prescribes  is  like  laying  tracks  for 
the  wheels  of  Providence. 

Theology,  let  us  say,  is  a  science.  Whether 
a  legitimate  one  let  us  not  decide  now.'  If  it 
is  a  science,  and  if  by  virtue  of  its  being  scien- 
tific, it  presumes  to  have  a  right  to  do  service 
as  an  applied  sc\&ncQ,  it  forfeits  its  claim.  Re- 
ligion is  neither  an  abstract  science  of  a  meta- 
physical kind,  nor  an  art  among  the  other  arts. 
It  is  the  wisdom  of  history  ;  it  is  the  best 
in  every  phase  of  individual  living,  taught  by 
the  life  of  mankind  during  its  eventful  career. 
It  will  in  the  end  of  days  stand  for  all  the 
noble  and  precious  things  mankind  has  earned 

'  When  Fairbairn  says  ("  Theology  as  an  Academic  Disci- 
pline "  in  Contemporary  Review,  1887):  "  Theology  is  used 
to  denote  a  science  whose  field  is  coexistent  with  the  prob- 
lems and  the  history  of  religion,  and  we  may  say  of  the  sci- 
ences as  of  religion,  that  since  it  has  to  do  with  every  region 
of  thought  and  relation  of  life,  whatever  concerns  man  con- 
cerns it,"  he  forgets  that  theology  is  not  so  impartial.  The 
fact  is,  that  of  all  characteristics  of  theological  studies  none  is 
so  prominent,  as  well  as  proverbial,  as  their  partisanship.  The 
raison  d'etre  for  theology  is,  if  not  polemics  against  the  hete- 
rodox, at  any  rate  apologetics  pro  domo.  Theology  has  a 
"  Tendenz,"  i.  e.,  the  theologian  has  his  purpose  and  end 
fixed  before  ever  he  has  started  out.  He  has  his  conclusions 
already  given.  The  business  of  theologians  is  to  find  cor- 
roboration for  a  preconceived  whim.  This  takes  it  out  of  the 
realm  of  legitimate  sciences.  The  science  of  sciences,  tlie 
highest  synthesis,  such  as  the  science  of  religion  is,  is  supremely 
impartial,  and  is  continually  acquiring  more  and  better  mate- 
rial, and  is  the  profoundest  promise. 


62  Religion  and  Dogma. 

by  its  work  and  experiences.  The  history  of 
religion  is  to  humanity  what  biography  is 
to  an  individual,  in  which  the  gist  of  it  is 
the  average  capacity  evidenced,  and  the  no- 
bility of  it  is  instanced  in  the  moment  of 
greatest  power.  Religion  and  civilization  over- 
lap each  other.  It  is  the  cultivation  of  the 
best  abilities  to  the  neglect  of  none.  It  is  the 
harmonizing  of  all  capacities.  Matthew  Ar- 
nold says  :  "  Religion,  the  greatest  and  the 
most  important  of  the  effects  by  which  the 
human  race  has  manifested  its  impulse  to  per- 
fect itself  ;  religion,  that  voice  of  the  deepest 
human  experience, — does  not  only  enjoin  and 
sanction  the  aim,  which  is  the  great  aim  of 
culture,  the  aim  of  setting  ourselves  to  ascer- 
tain what  perfection  is  and  to  make  it  prevail, 
but  also  in  determining  generally  in  what  hu- 
man perfection  consists,  religion  comes  to  a 
conclusion  identical  with  that  which  culture, — 
culture  seeking  the  determination  of  this  ques- 
tion through  all  the  voices  of  human  experi- 
ence, which  have  been  heard  upon  it,  of  art, 
science,  poetry,  philosophy,  history,  as  well  as 
of  religion,  in  order  to  give  a  greater  ful- 
ness and  certainty  to  its  solution — likewise 
reaches."  "     And  Emerson  "^  puts  it  in  his  own 

'  Matthew  Arnold,  "Culture  and  Anarchy, "  London,  1882, 
p.  10. 

*  "Essay  on  Worship,"  Works,  Vol.  VI.,  p.  196. 


Religion  and  Dogma.  63 

inimitably  terse  and  telling  manner  :  "  The 
whole  state  of  man  is  a  state  of  culture,  and 
its  flowering  and  completion  may  be  described 
as  religion  or  worship."  Religion  is  an  ever- 
active  impulse,  no  philosophic  theorem.  It  is 
an  incentive  which  from  the  inward  soul  of 
every  man  radiates  out  into  all  the  activities  of 
life.  Theology  and  dogmatism  are  the  letter, 
religion  is  the  spirit. 

But  in  religious  history  theology  constitutes 
an  important  chapter.  It  is  not  the  happiest 
chapter.  Theological  history  is  sad  ;  but  it  is 
a  part  which  once  was  very  significant,  and 
which,  even  now,  some  are  loth  to  forsake  ; 
and  many  would  be  indignant  to  be  suspected 
of  ever  yielding  it  up.  The  reason  is,  that  theol- 
ogy has  usurped  great  powers.  It  asserts  sole 
right  to  ownership  of  religion.  But  there  is  no 
proprietary  claim  valid  on  thought.  That  is 
public  property."  I  cannot  imagine  that  any 
church  or  sect  can  claim  more  than  that  it  has 
found  the  phenomena  of  religion  at  hand  ;  and 


^  "  They  encamped  in  the  desert,  for  this  reason:  If  the 
law  had  been  given  in  the  land  of  Israel,  they  might  have 
persuaded  themselves  to  say  :  Ye  Gentiles,  ye  have  no  share 
in  this  law.  Therefore,  the  law  was  promulgated  in  the  des- 
ert, to  the  people,  in  open  assembly,  publicly  ;  so  that  all, 
who  wish  to  receive  it,  may  come." — "  Mechilta,"  Parshath 
Jithro.  Truth  is  public,  and  the  good  man  is  public,  belong- 
ing to  all. 


64  Religion  and  Dogma. 

that  the  one  it  found  is  the  true  reh'gion.    This 
is  what  it  must  assert. 

We,  who  know  the  universality  of  the  reli- 
gious intuition,  can  appreciate  these  claims. 
We  are  apt  to  look  upon  the  legitimacy  of 
them  as  we  would  upon  the  allegations  of  a 
man  who  would  come  to  us  and  seriously  tell 
us  that  he  has  possession  of  the  magnetism  of 
the  earth  ;  and,  though  he  will  admit  there 
may  be  other  magnetisms  flowing  through  the 
bowels  of  the  earth,  he  will  assert  that  this,  of 
his,  alone  is  the  terrestrial  magnet.  You  see 
the  folly  of  monopoly.  The  forces  of  nature 
cannot  be  monopolized.  The  lightning,  which 
comes  down  from  the  cloudy  sky,  will  go  down 
the  rod  of  your  house,  and  of  mine,  and  every- 
body else's  within  the  neighborhood.  All  men 
have  the  same  chance  to  breathe  the  air.  I 
hold  religion  is  such  a  force  of  nature,  but  the 
noblest.  Religion  is  a  free  gift  of  Providence, 
and  the  only  imperishable  one.  But  it  is  as 
elementary  as  fire,  as  air,  as  electricity,  as  the 
trembling  column  that  bears  the  light  through 
space  from  the  sun  in  the  vast  distance  to 
the  little  iris  of  my  eye.  As  little  as  you  can 
lay  your  yard-stick  on  the  majestic  clouds,  sail- 
ing along  over  your  head,  you  can  put  your 
theologic  gauge  on  the  sublime  sweep  of  reli- 
gious emotion.  As  in  the  past,  so  through  the 
future  of  mankind. 


Religion  a7id  Dogma.  65 

Definitions  of  religious  principles  are  proper; 
but  not  limitations  to  a  partisan  conception  of 
them  ;  and,  above  all,  care  must  be  taken  that 
the  doctrine  preferred  be  the  wisdom  of  expe- 
rience, a  generalization  of  discreet  understand- 
ing, probed  and  tested  ;  but  no  standard  of 
camp,  no  self-imposed  assertions  to  impose  in 
turn  upon  others.  It  is  perilous  to  stake  our 
sectarian  existence  on  a  theological  obstinacy. 
Providence  has  an  irresistible  way  of  her  own. 
Who  knows,  some  day  Providence  may  set  it 
into  her  head,  having  shrewdly  prepared  the 
way  by  a  gradual  unfolding  of  her  culturing 
plan,  to  throw  the  whole  construction  of  the- 
ology into  a  heap  ;  and  what  then  ?  We  must 
take  into  our  reckoning  the  consent  of  all-wise 
Providence.  No  teaching  will  stand,  save  it 
have  the  tacit  consent  of  the  divine  thought, 
which  manifests  itself  in  the  universal  order 
and  in  the  unfailing  vindication  of  the  just 
and  the  true. 

Let  me,  in  a  few  words  advert  to  the  posi- 
tion which  Jewish  teachers  have  thought  fit 
to  take  with  regard  to  the  temporary  character 
of  religious  dispensations  and  to  the  universal 
religion.  It  should  be  taken  as  significant  of 
more  than  mere  sectarian  presumption,  when 
we  find  the  following  declaration  in  the  Mid- 
rash.  The  inception  of  the  world  is  to  be  ac- 
credited, with  regard  to  its  source,  to  religion, 


66  RcliQ-ion  and  Doznia. 

and  as  to  its  ultimate  purpose,  to  the  eventual 
vindication  of  Israel.*  One,  who  is  conscious 
of  the  profound  content  of  religion  and  is  im- 
bued with  the  conviction,  that  to  do  justice  to 
the  aspect  of  religious  doctrines  and  to  give  it 
that  validity  which  makes  them  scientifically 
certain  and  comprehensive,  will  naturally  fall 
into  fulsome  rhetoric.  He  feels  that,  despite  the 
extravagance  of  words  and  the  verbal  osten- 
tatiousness,  his  subject  is  in  itself  essentially 
grander  than  words  can  paint,  and  goes  farther 
into  the  secrets  of  the  universe  and  of  God  than 
his  meagre  vocabulary  and  ambitious  phraseol- 
ogy ever  can  portray.  We  meet  such  boastful 
language  in  the  prophets,  which  must  always  be 
taken  as  the  demonstration  of  an  impulsive  at- 
tempt to  reach  the  unattainable.*  A  mind  that 
has  monition  of  the  presence  of  a  Great  Spirit, 

'  "  The  Pentateuch  begins  with  the  words,  '  In  the  begin- 
ning,' to  suggest  that  the  creation  of  the  world  and  the  Thora 
and  Israel  cany  out  one  identical  purpose  of  God." — "  Midr. 
Rabba,"  Gen.  i. 

^  Matthew  Arnold  says  :  "...  The  spirit  and  tongue  of 
Israel  kept  a  propriety,  a  reserve,  a  sense  of  the  inadequacy  of 
language,  in  conveying  man's  ideas  of  God,  which  contrast 
strongly  with  the  license  of  affirmation  in  our  western  theol- 
ogy. '  The  high  and  holy  One  that  inhabiteth  eternity,  whose 
name  is  holy,'  is  far  more  proper  and  felicitous  language  than 
'  the  moral  and  intelligent  Governor  of  the  universe.'  Just 
because  it  far  less  attempts  to  be  precise,  but  keeps  to  the  lan- 
guage of  poetry  and  does  not  essay  the  language  of  science." 
— "  Literature  and  Dogma.,"  p.  34. 


Religion  and  Dogma.  67 

that  ties  down  the  universe  to  His  own  person, 
and  feels  that  the  changes  and  the  vast  web  of 
fortune  are  the  work  of  the  unseen  hands  of 
that  Spirit,  whose  unceasing  activity  he  has 
observed  in  a  transient  conglomerate  of  matter 
made  supremely  intelligent — such  a  one,  not- 
withstanding eloquence  and  skill,  is  like  Moses 
of  old — only  a  stammerer,  of  uncircumcised  lips. 
So  here  the  bent  for  order  and  for  peace  (this 
the  religious  disposition  is,  no  more,  no  less) 
maintains  the  universe,  and  works  out  that 
consummation.  This  is  meant.  The  origin  of 
the  world,  in  the  creative  thought  of  the  deity, 
is  like  the  end  of  it  will  be.  As  coming  from 
God,  so  in  returning  to  him.  The  beginning 
and  the  finality  of  the  design  being  in  God,  the 
two  terms,  beginning  and  end,  are  identical. 
God  puts  a  soul  into  men,  and  this  soul  shall 
have  grand  revelation.  Struggling  amid  the 
deterrent  influences  of  body,  circumstances 
and  fateful  conditions,  the  spirit  of  man  will, 
some  day,  have  glorious  vindication.  The  life 
and  history  of  mankind  has,  for  its  inward  pur- 
pose, the  emancipation  and  the  open  acknowl- 
edgment of  its  sovereignty. 

There  are  allusions  to  universality  in  the 
literature  of  the  Jews  which,  keeping  in  view 
the  fact  that  their  traditional  legalism  was 
scarcely  apt  to  encourage  it,  merit  special  men- 
tion, for  they  are  liable  to  be  neglected.     It  is 


68  Relicrion  aiid  Doirma. 


<b 


more  than  simply  an  ethical  (surely  more  than 
a  caballistic)  indoctrination,  when  even  the  So- 
har  is  led  to  say  that,  "  Every  noble  act 
awakes  the  power  of  a  higher  life  out  of  its 
latency,  and  every  rude  and  ignoble  act  weakens 
or  deadens  it."  '  Nor  is  the  suggestive  remark  of 
the  Midrash  to  be  disregarded:  "The  first 
stage  is  that  in  which  virtue  looks  up  to  God 
as  its  prototype,  he  being  merciful ;  the  sec- 
ond stage  that  of  justice,  in  which  the  grace 
and  the  forgiveness  of  God  becomes  a  nobler 
sentiment,  though  less  delicate,  that  of  jus- 
tice."^ 

The  philosophy  of  Maimonides  is  well 
known,  and  is  being  ranked  higher  since  the 
subjective  side  of  religion  is  looming  up  as  a 
more  important  constituent  in  the  determina- 
tion of  the  quality  of  our  religion  and  conduct. 
The  effort  of  which  this  founder  of  Jewish 
philosophy  never  wearied  is  to  find  in  every 
instance  of  mediocre  or  exalted  religiousness  a 
psychologic  explanation.^  He  reduced  the 
loftiest  states  of  prophecy  to  little  less  than  a 
genial,  though   in   the   unfolding  of  it  a  com- 

'  "  Sohar,"  403,  92. 

^  "  Midrash  Rabba,"  Genesis,  xlix. 

'"  Iggereth  HaRambam,"  No.  2  ;  cf.  Narboni  to  "  More," 
I.,  21.  The  soul  of  the  creature  is  its  essence,  "Jessode 
Hathora,"  4,  8.  The  essentiality  of  the  soul  is  posited  in 
"  More  Nebuchim,"  II.,  premise  10  and  11. 


Religion  and  Dogma.  69 

pletely  normal,  display  of  mental  activity.  This 
\?,  per  se  an  almost  sufficient  evidence  that  this 
democratic  theology  is  preeminently  Jewish. 
If  others  before  him  did  not  succeed  in  giving 
exposition  to  a  similar  conception  of  univer- 
sality as  to  religion,  it  was  not  because  they 
did  not  harbor  the  same  conception,  and  I  may 
say,  the  same  sense  of  spiritual  fraternity,  but 
because  it  was  in  their  time  not  the  common 
method  to  speak  in  generalities,  and  to  devise 
philosophemes  of  religion.' 

The  philosophy  of  the  Talmud,  if  of  such 
there  can  beany  mention,  is  practical.  It  pre- 
sents theorems  not  in  logical  concatenation, 
but  as  ingredients  of  precepts  ;  and  perhaps 
this  experimental  philosophy  is  not  less  legiti- 
mate. For  us  it  will  be  for  the  present  pur- 
pose immaterial  to  find  the  value  of  either  the- 
oretic or  practical  religious  teachings.  We 
wish  merely  to  assure  ourselves  that  it  would 
be  a  grievous  error  to  suppose  that,  because 
the  apothegms  of  an  axiomatic  character  or  in- 
ductions that  have  a  pleasing  ring  to  them  are 
not  frequent  in  the  Talmud,  that  on  that  ac- 

'  It  is  just  to  the  much-maligned  Sepher  Yezirahto  give  space 
here  to  this  declaration  in  VI.,  2  :  "  The  heart  is  in  the  soul 
as  the  king  in  the  combat."  Compare  with  this  Ghazali  "  Eben 
Haphilosophim,"  in  "  Moz'ne  Zedek,"  p.  40:  "A  man — 
his  heart  is  royal  (residing  centrally  in  him),  like  a  king  in  his 
realm." — Compare  Jellinek,  Beitrdge  zur  Geschichte  der  Kab- 
ba/a.—Eisles  Heft. 


JO  Religion  and  Dogma. 

count  we  may  suspect  that  universal  teachings 
in  Jewish  literature  are  reformatory  efforts  only 
on  the  part  of  the  few  against  the  conserva- 
tiveness  of  the  mass.  Nothing  would  be  wider 
of  the  mark. 

A  catechism  which  pretends  to  being  no  more 
than  a  compilation  of  ethical  particularities, 
we  are  in  the  habit  of  looking  down  upon  as 
failing  to  fill  the  very  first  requirement.  Re- 
ligious inculcation  must  be  adaptive.  But  it 
is  obvious  that  in  religious  instruction  there 
must  be,  as  a  matter  of  necessity,  an  identifi- 
cation of  precept  and  example.  The  training 
of  the  mind  and  the  heart,  and  more  especially 
of  the  latter,  for  it  is  more  directly  involved  in 
the  formation  of  habits  and  of  disposition," 
can  be  made  ef^cient  only  in  the  presence  of 
the  urgent  demands  of  duties  by  parental  or 
tutorial  cooperation,  not  only  by  prescription. 
To  understajid  what  is  right  is  not  sufficient. 
The  application  of  the  abstract  right  gives 
worry.  One  example  is  more  efficacious  and 
instructive  than  many  refined  abstractions. 
And  I  hold  that  the  Talmud  is  such  a  kind  of 
catechism,  and  that  its  method  is  applicative. 

The  theology  of  the  Talmud  is  insignificant 
In  fact,  with  the  exception  of  foreign  importa- 

'  "A  mere  philosophical  system,  however  true,  can  never 
take  the  place  of  religious  faith." — Mueller,  "  Science  of  Re- 
ligion," p.  43. 


Religion  and  Dogma.  71 

tion,  which  it  will  be  our  business  to  speak  of 
later  on,  there  is  no  appreciable  metaphysics 
in  Talmudic  literature.  It  is  Halachic,  that  is 
it  concerns  itself  with  fixing  the  law ;  and  it 
occasionally  delights  in  fancy  and  produces 
those  sweet  scented  poesies  which  constitute 
the  Haggada.  These  latter,  moralists  of  the 
Jewish  schools  would  offer  for  the  delectation 
of  the  listeners  and  for  their  edification,  and 
were  intended  to  suggest  thoughts  in  this 
loose  and  unauthentic  manner,  which  other- 
wise might  have  been  neglected.  At  any  rate 
the  Haggada  was  exquisite  homiletics. 

The  feature  of  Rabbinic  teaching  is  its  habit 
of  making  sentiment  and  reason  mutual,  per- 
haps even  of  identifying  them.'  And  here 
again  we  see  the  character  of  aboriginal  faith 
felicitously  repeated.  It  is  not  infrequently 
recorded  in  the  Talmud  how  the  Rabbis,  I 
mention  Rabbi  Joshua  ben  Chananjah  es- 
pecially, were  in  dispute  with  philosophers ; 
and  in  every  case  the  native  impatience  of  the 
Jew  against  philosophy  is  manifest. °     We  shall 

'  "A  religion/to  be  accepted  by  any  but  an  insignificant  fac- 
tion, must  find  a  response  not  only  by  the  intellects,  but  in  the 
emotions  of  those  for  whom  it  is  designed." — Amberly,  "An- 
alysis of  Religious  Belief,"  Vol.  I.,  page  194. 

^  Vid.  "  Mid.  Rabba"  to  Koheleth,  sub  voce,  "  All  words  are 
vain."  "  Baba  Bathra,"  9  ;  also  Hamburger,  "  Real  Encyclo- 
psedie  fiir  Bibel  u.  Talmud,"  Strelitz,  1883,  II.,  p.  1023-24; 
Instance  also   R.    Simlai's   answer  in  "Talmud  Jerus."    ed 


72  Religion  and  Dogma. 

have  occasion  in  the  course  of  an  investigation 
of  a  chapter  of  religious  history  to  see  the 
disinclination  of  Judaism  to  tolerate  the  inter- 
ference of  philosophy  in  matters  of  faith. 
What  was  manifest  in  the  special  issue  of  the 
period  of  the  origin  of  Christianity,  was  the 
persistent  policy  throughout  the  history  of 
Judaism. 

Indeed  our  explanation  of  Judaism  and  of 
the  history  of  the  Jewish  people  per  se  might 
be  found  in  this  very  matter.  The  Jewish  peo- 
ple are  distinctive  for  this  lack  of  desire  for 
catechismal  exactness.  The  Jew  is  ignorant 
of  the  formulae  of  religion  ;  in  fact  he  is  in  such 
a  frank  state  of  religious  ardor,  that  his  blunt- 
ness  to  theological  niceties  can  scarcely  be 
looked  upon  as  reprehensible.  By  this  renun- 
ciation of  abstractions  and  dogmatism  and  by 
this  native  love  for  empiricism,  however,  the 
Jew  evoked  no  small  amount  of  polemics. 
This  is  the  everlasting  disputation  against  the 
"  First  Covenant." 

Krakau,  p.  12,  d.,  and  "  Niddah,"  31,  a  ;"  Sabbath"  31,  a  ; 
"  Aboth  d.  R.  Nathan  "I.  "  Aboda  Sarah,"  54  ,  "  Mid.  Rab- 
ba,"  Gen.  i.,  Exodus,  xxx. 


CHAPTER  V. 

PROPHECY. 

We  shall  have  a  word  with  the  defenders  of 
the  doctrine  that  prophecies  have  been  ful- 
filled. Such  a  doctrine  of  a  fulfilment  of  pro- 
phecies is  a  legitimate  phenomenon  in  the 
history  of  religion,  but  is  unfortunate  in  the 
genesis  of  a  faith.  Much  effort  is  exerted  for 
the  purpose  of  justifying  hints  supposed  to 
have  been  made  in  Bibles  and  for  making  out 
that  they  were  actually  fulfilled.  Pretension 
is  seriously  made  that  the  life  of  one  religion 
lies  according  to  divine  intention  in  the  death 
of  another. 

It  is  valid  and  the  conventional  right  cannot 
be  impugned  that  a  new  doctrine  claim  pre- 
dominance. But  we  have  grown  up  in  the 
habit  of  conceiving  that  along  with  innova- 
tion there  must  be  improvement.  We  cannot 
reconcile  ourselves  to  the  assertion  that  a  new 
revelation  is  simply  a  new  edition  of  what  the 
old  taught  long  ago.  In  fact  it  seems  to  me, 
that  in  thus  foundinga  faith,  or  in  believing  that 
one's  faith  is  thus  justified,  we  have  good  cause 
for  wonder.  If  some  one,  praising  his  inven- 
73 


74  Prophecy. 

tion,  or  desiring  to  dispose  of  a  patent  of  his, 
alleges  naively,  that  it  is  7ion  plus  ultra,  since  it 
is  identical  with  an  ancient  model,  we  should 
have  reason  for  humor. 

The  dogma  of  a  new  faith,  ambitious  to 
take  the  place  as  a  legitimate  religion,  but 
drawing  the  sap  of  life  from,  nay  having  its 
entire  cause  of  being  in  another,  is  from  these 
very  circumstances  polemic'  This  is  a  serious 
weakness.  A  religion  which  starts  with  a  com- 
bat against  another  repels.  For  it  is  neither 
an  evidence  that  the  later  phase  has  a  worth 
of  its  own,  upon  which  it  can  rest  its  claim 
that  it  be  received  ;  nor  is  it  an  inviting  spec- 
tacle to  see  a  doctrine  of  peace  and  of  concord 
starting  its  pilgrimage  of  salvation  with  a  com- 
bat  and  a  dispute. 

But  we  have  to  deal  here  not  so  much  with 
this  inconsistency  in  practice  as  with  the  in- 
herent faultiness  of  the  conception  of  prophecy, 
which  is  implied  in  the  practice,  and  which  is 
the  fertile  source  of  false  religion. 

Religion  is  independent,  as  to  its  essence,' 
of  bible,  priests,  and  prophets.  A  faith  must 
have  a  vitality  of  its  own,  and  be  acceptable 
on  its  own  account.     Any  other  legitimization 

'  "  There  is  a  difference  between  the  prophets  of  Israel  and 
the  prophets  of  other  nations.  The  prophets  of  Israel  exhorted 
against  the  commission  of  sins,  those  of  other  nations  caused  a 
breach,"  i.  e.,  were  sectarian,  polemic. — "  Bereshith  Rabba," 
20  ;  cf.  "  Ikkarim,"  II.,  28  and  74. 


Prophecy.  75 

and  support  may  warrant  endurance  to  a  sect. 
But  the  evangelization  of  men  by  the  spirit  of 
manliness  and  by  the  incentive,  which  the  dis- 
play of  individuality  offers,  goes  on  spontan- 
eously, and  has  its  own  method  of  generous 
and  noble  persuasion.  I  do  not  mean  to  inti- 
mate that  the  appurtenances,  which  custo- 
marily belong  to  the  inculcation  and  to  the  pres- 
ervation in  purity  of  religious  doctrines,  are 
valueless.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  he  who 
takes  pains  to  determine  his  opinions  concern- 
ing conduct,  and  lets  them  grow  upon  himself  as 
conviction,  and  is  bent  upon  exercising  them  in 
the  form  of  the  best  actions,  has  very  efficient 
reminders  in  himself.  The  antithesis  to  theo- 
logical religion  is  personal  religion  ;  and  the  lat- 
ter has  its  best  exemplification  when  we  are 
emancipated  from  the  bonds  of  dogmatism,  and 
walk  unhampered  upon  the  way  of  pure  intelli- 
gence, resolutely  devoted  to  acting  according 
to  the  dictates  of  a  chastened  personality.' 

Knowing,  then,  that  in  the  perfect  faith  there 
is  an    approximately   high  degree    of   self-de- 

'  "  All  depends  upon  the  conduct  of  a  man.  In  accordance 
with  the  quality  of  that,  the  spirit  of  God  can  be  said  to  reside 
in  him." — "  Pesikta "  Parshath  Para,  and  also  "  Midrash 
Rabba,"  Chukath.  ' '  The  power  of  the  prophets  was  profound, 
for  they  typified  in  human  form  the  image  of  God." — Ibid. 
"  I  shall  make  of  thee  a  great  nation,  i.  e.,  I  shall  make  thee 
high-priest,  like  Adam." — "  Tal  Pijoth." 


76  Prophecy. 

termination  of  religion  and  practice,  we  cannot 
say  unconditionally  that  the  shaping  of  our 
conduct  is  taken  out  of  our  hands,  and  that  we 
are  subserving  merely  a  fore-ordained  end — 
fulfilling  certain  prophecies. 

The  trouble  in  the  matter  is  that  in  most 
sectarian  religions  the  notion  obtains  that 
there  is  due  on  the  part  of  the  adherents  an  un- 
questioning loyalty  to  priesthood,  episcopacy, 
papacy,  and  also  an  unquestioning  belief  in  the 
identity  of  this  priestly  character  of  religion 
with  prophetic  authentication.  They  teach 
that  priests  and  prophets  taught  the  same  ;  the 
prophets  foretold  to  oblige  the  priests.  We 
need,  however,  pretend  to  no  profound  scholar- 
ship in  presuming  to  remind  people  that  priests 
and  prophets  were  scarcely  ever  on  such  inti- 
mate terms,  and  they  never  played  into  each 
other's  hand.  If  it  is  asserted  by  the  priest- 
hood of  modern  sects  that  they  have  the  cor- 
roboration of  prophets,  if  it  is  said  that  their 
doctrine  was  foretold  and  thus  legitimized, 
they  commit  a  grievous  misapprehension  of  the 
relation  of  priest  and  prophet. 

Nothing  is  clearer  in  the  history  of  every  re- 
ligion than  this  :  that  priest  and  prophet  of  a 
faith  always  disagreed ;  nay,  the  prophetic 
calling,  in  fact,  is  radically  a  protest  against 
the  usurpation  and  extravagant  domination  of 
the  priesthood.      This  is  historical,  and  is  sub- 


Prophecy.  "]"] 

stantiated  by  the  circumstances  of  our  time. 
There  is  even  now  a  large  number  of  intelli- 
gent people  outside  of  the  pale  of  the  Church 
and  of  organized  religion,  who  have  withdrawn 
from  conventional  modes  of  ritual  with  intent 
and  protest.  Their  integrity  and  character  is 
irreproachable,  and  they  will  not,  I  am  sure, 
be  branded  as  irreligious  because  they  protest 
against  conventional  forms  of  church-practice. 
They  protest  against  hierarchy  in  religion. 
They  cannot  reconcile  themselves  to  the  sancti- 
moniousness and  the  artificiality  which  fre- 
quently pass  for  piety.  They  demand  a  vig- 
orous and  a  self-asserting  sort  of  religion. 
Somehow  they  cannot  help  speaking  of  religion 
as  being  manhood,  and  they  are  fond  of  believ- 
ing that  worship  is  not  merely  Sunday  service, 
but  a  serving  of  the  spirit  of  right,  without 
looking  at  all  at  the  precise  day  of  the  week. 
Their  faith  is  not  dreamy,  but  wide-awake,  as 
behooves  men  in  the  duties  of  every  moment 
of  our  eventful  life.  If  they  are  not  geniuses, 
inspired  with  a  regenerative  fervor,  and  borne 
along  in  the  exaltation  of  a  self-vindicating 
spirituality,  they  are,  at  any  rate,  somewhat 
conscious  of  a  responsibility  they  owe,  and 
which  no  one  but  they  themselves  can  shoul- 
der ;  they  have  a  conviction  that  religion  is 
solely  their  own  matter.  As  little,  they  be- 
lieve, as  there  can  be  delegation  in  matters  of 


78  Prophecy. 

morality/  but  each  one  stands  or  falls  on  the 
strength  of  his  merit,  so  in  the  whole  field  of 
religious  activity  determination  of  the  proper 
course  and  principle  is  to  be  left  to  them,  and 
not  to  any  other  one,  to  do  that  work  for  them. 
You  see  by  thus  insisting  on  standing  for 
themselves  on  their  own  feet,  they  protest 
against  the  representative  habit  of  Church- 
ritual.  In  this  lies  the  reason  why  the  hier- 
archies combat  and  struggle.  It  is  the  same 
war  which  priests  always  waged  against  the  in- 
dividualization of  religion,  to  which  the 
prophets  devoted  their  energies  untiringly. 

The  prophet  in  religion  stands  for  the 
future  of  it  ;  he  is  the  spokesman,  not  of  the 
infantile  promises  of  local  interests  and  of  the 
enactment  of  surprising  occurrences,  but  of  the 
noblest  content  of  human  life,  of  that  because 
of  which  the  present  is  made  worthy,  and  the 
past  ceases  to  be  a  breath  of  air  that  has  blown 
over  us.  He  infuses  into  all  departments 
the  spirit  of  life,  by  teaching  concerning  the 

'  "When  God  said  to  Aaron  :  'Thus  shall  ye  bless,'  the 
people  of  Israel  exclaimed  :  '  T\\&  priests  shall  bless  us  ?  Thy 
blessing  is  the  only  one  we  require  ;  by  Thy  decree  we  are 
blessed.'  But  God  answered  :  '  Though  I  have  said  the  priests 
shall  bless  ye,  I  shall  be  present  with  them,  and  I  shall  bless 
through  them.'  Therefore,  when  the  priests  spread  forth 
their  hands  (in  the  recitation  of  the  customary  threefold  bless- 
ing), they  intimate  thus  symbolically,  that  God  is  about  us  and 
guards  us  by  His  Providence." — "  Debarim  Rabba,"  il. 


Prophecy.  79 

events,  deed,  thought,  sentiment  that  they  are 
the  seed  to  bear  fruit.  Instantly,  under  his 
genial  treatment,  the  ills  of  our  condition  are 
healed.  For  he  has  the  balm  of  hopefulness. 
For  the  workman  at  his  task  he  has  the  cheer- 
ing word  of  encouragement.  Labor  is  not  a 
drudgery.  Life  is  not  filled  with  wants  that 
forever  plague  and  are  never  satisfied.  Means, 
which  are  serviceable  for  all  the  needs  of  our 
life,  have  been  put  into  our  hands.  We  can 
fashion  our  character  into  beautiful  proportions 
for  contentment  and  delight.  Towards  the 
holy  interests  of  mankind  and  the  destiny  of 
humanity  to  behold  the  undimmed  light  of 
truth  ;  towards  the  everlasting  ideality  of  hu- 
manity, which  it  attains  to  and  progresses 
in  ;  towards  this  most  of  all  the  prophet  turns 
in  the  profound  yearning  of  his  soul,  and  in 
the  brightness  of  his  vision.  If  ever  prom- 
ises were  given  in  the  books  of  religious 
precepts,  he  gave  them,  and  his  will  be  fulfilled  ; 
such  promises  are  the  hopes,  the  exalted  and 
the  exalting  ideals. 

There  is  a  high  degree  of  sentiment  in 
prophecy,  too  high  that  it  should  grovel  in 
the  dust  amid  petrified  bones  of  "  fulfilment." 
Prophecy  is  not  a  trick  of  foretelling.  Should 
the  prophets  be  simply  the  channel  through 
which  God  is  pleased  to  make  manifest  His 
supreme  power  of  foreknowledge,  little  rever- 


8o  Prophecy. 

ence  would  be  due  to  the  spiritually  perforated 
beings  which  let  the  revelation  pass  through 
them  as  through  a  sieve.  God's  men  partake 
of  His  transcendency  ;  inspired  with  His  sacred 
breath,  they  are  somewhat  more  efificient,  and 
give  better  evidence  of  their  selection  and 
exaltation.  Let  us  have  greater  respect  for  the 
geniuses  of  mankind,  more  reverence  for  the 
divinity,  when  it  reveals  itself  in  the  most 
sanctified  spot,  the  human  mind  and  heart. 
There  is  not  one  word  uttered  by  their  lips 
but  what  a  spirit  prompted,  which  was  con- 
scious and  felt  deeply.  But,  I  am  not  slow  to 
admit,  they  were  in  the  bounds  of  human  virtue 
and  human  passion.  As  much  as  there  is  of 
the  glory  of  spirituality  in  the  prophet,  there 
is  also  the  admixture  of  the  lowness  and  the 
limitation  of  body.  He  is  never  perfect,  never 
angelic.  This  is  the  imperishable  honor  of 
the  prophet,  that  he  freed  himself  from  the 
deterring  influences  of  his  time  and  condition 
and  lifted  himself  on  the  pinions  of  his  genius 
into  the  regions  of  profound  contemplation.' 
From  these  he  could  look  down  and  see  more 
than  many  other  men.  His  heroic  struggle 
makes  the  great  man  exemplary  and  didactic. 
This  emancipation  and  this  greater  vision,  this 
prophetic  exaltation,  can  be  ours,  is  possible 
for  all,  if  we  will. 

'  "  Kusari,"  I.,  103. 


Prophecy.  8 1 

This  truth  must  be  emphasized.  I  call  atten- 
tion to  the  condition.  Self-determination  is  the 
prime  condition.  The  constituents  of  this  feli- 
citous state  of  soul-independence,  however,  are 
not  simply  wisdom  and  energetic  effort  in  the 
direction  of  wisdom.  There  is  a  third  factor, 
which  eludes  us.  But  the  product  will  never 
be  right  unless  this  third  factor  is  present. 
There  is  a  difference  between  complete  manli- 
ness and  geniality.  The  one  is  the  end  and 
completeness  to  which  latent  human  abilities 
can  be  brought  :  the  other  cannot  be  accounted 
for  in  a  mathematical  manner. 

The  analysis  of  a  genius  will  always  leave 
something  that  we  cannot  account  for  ;  this  is 
its  exceptional  feature.  Our  will  can  command 
the  capacities  at  hand ;  but  cannot  create 
capacities.  The  genius  is  accoutred  in  a 
manner  such  as  makes  him  recognizable  at  first 
sight.  He  is  the  best  man.  That  much  we 
may  venture  to  assert.  But  the  moment  he 
has  satisfied  us  as  to  that,  and  still  transcends 
the  standard,  he  is  not  any  more  of  a  class,  but 
stands  by  himself.  He  is  isolated  by  his  genius. 
No  amount  of  exertion  of  our  will  can  make  us 
associates  of  him.  Some  come  nearer  to  him, 
as  near  as  they  well  can  ;  these  are  our  men  of 
talent.  Genius  creates,  the  talented  imitates. 
The  one  discovers,  the  other  invents.  Genius 
creates  in  the  twinkling  of  the  eye,  without 


82  Prophecy. 

exertion  ;  the  work  comes  off  his  hand  in  com- 
pleteness and  beauty,  with  grace  and  ease. 
The  talented  must  labor  hard  and  rest  content 
with  mere  approximation  to  all  this.' 

Religious  leaders,  those  who  control  the 
thoughts  of  the  masses,  are  either  geniuses  or 
talents,  according  to  the  primal  character  of 
their  temperament.  They  are,  each  of  them, 
exemplifications  of  how  high  God  has  made  it 
possible  for  the  human  mind  to  rise.  The 
practical  side  of  their  life  is  another  matter  ; 
the  results  of  their  career  must  be  divorced 
from  their  personalities.  The  geniuses  must  be 
estimated  with  respect  to  their  intrinsic  worth, 
and  not  to  the  temporal  features  of  their  work, 

'  Jiirgen  B.  Meyer,  in  Zeitschrift  filr  Volkerpsychologie ,  von 
Steinthal  und  Lazarus,  1880,  says  :  "  Talent  is  conscious  of 
itself,  and  knows  the  '  how  '  and  the  '  why  '  it  arrives  at  its 
inferences  and  conclusions.  Not  so  genius  ;  to  it  the  how  and 
wherefore  are  always  subtle.  There  is  nothing  less  self- 
conscious  and  less  immediate  than  a  genial  thought." — He 
says  further:  "The  imaginative  faculty  of  talent  reflects 
things  and  facts  which  have  received  already  a  greater  or  less 
amount  of  corroboration  ;  while  the  fancy  with  which  genius  is 
endowed  presents  matters  never  before  presented.  Talent  is 
like  a  marksman  aiming  at  a  point,  which  seems  to  us  difficult 
of  hitting  ;  genius  has  a  target  which  is  not  visible  to  our 
eyes.  The  novelty,  it  must  be  remembered,  consists  not  in 
the  material,  but  in  the  direction  of  the  new  shot  sent  forth." 

"  Talent  may  be  inherited,  acquired,  and  lost  ;  and  genius 
is  a  commission  from  on  high." — Dr.  I.  M.  Wise,  "  Genius  in 
History  and  History  of  Genius,"  American  Israelite,  March 
17,  1882. 


Prophecy.  83 

as  to  how  they  transcended  their  time  and  con- 
ditions, and,  it  may  be,  a  stretch  of  time  beyond 
their  own. 

It  is  precarious  to  apply  the  law  of  the  sur- 
vival of  the  fittest  to  matters  of  genial  thought. 
Genius  has  not  always  the  world  to  applaud  it. 
Genius  stands  over  against  the  mass  of  com- 
mon men,  and  is  more  likely  to  incur  their 
hostility  than  their  enthusiasm.  This  feature 
in  the  life  of  great  men  is  generic.  All  great 
men  were  misunderstood.  Not  only  Jesus,  but 
also  Moses.'  Happily  they  were  full  of  faith 
and  hope.  If  we  would  gauge  men  by  their 
successes  or  failures,  many  a  one,  revered  and 
honored,  would  be  turned  out  of  one  pantheon. 
And,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  not  one  but 
thinks  regretfully  of  the  noble  efforts  of  those 
unfortunate  lovers  of  mankind,  who  dreamed 
of  the  felicities  of  human  life,  and  were  rudely 
awakened  by  the  noise  of  merciless  practicality. 

To  pass  judgment  upon  Moses,  Jesus,  Bud- 
dha, or  Zoroaster,  according  to  their  fortunes, 
and  not  to  perceive  their  soul-career,  is  missing 
the  very  point  of  their  greatness.     Whether 

Cf^  .  "Sanhedrin,"  no,  a. — "When  Moses  passed  through 
the  camp  all  the  Israelites  stood  in  front  of  their  tents,  until  he 
had  entered  the  sanctuary."  The  reason  alleged  for  this  is 
such,  that  out  of  respect  for  the  memory  of  Moses  we  forbear 
expressing  it.  Let  it  be  merely  intimated,  for  the  purpose  at 
hand,  that  also  upon  his  fair  name  the  sacrilege  of  suspicion 
was  cast. 


84  Prophecy. 

Moses  would  not  have  been  known  of  in 
Europe,  and  brought  to  esteem  there  through 
Christianity,  and  whether  Mahomet  popularized 
Judaism  and  Christianity  in  his  native  country 
and  in  all  Asia,  and  similarly  as  to  Buddha, 
are  questions  of  fortune,  incidental,  not  essen- 
tial, to  their  dispensations.  The  paramount 
question  is  :  Are  these  individually,  in  them- 
selves, worthy?  Does  their  personality  reside 
in  their  dispensation  to  such  an  extent,  that  it 
is  itself  sufHcient  as  an  exposition  of  truth? 

Is  there  among  these  any  one,  who  belongs 
not  to  sect,  or  time,  but  to  the  world  ?  As 
soon  as  Moses  is  a  genius,  it  matters  not 
whether  he  rode  in  the  triumphal  chariot, 
amid  the  plaudits  of  the  people,  or  whether 
his  hands  were  tied  by  the  limitations  of  his 
circumstances,  by  race  or  by  theology,  or  by 
tradition  and  conventionalism,  he  is  a  genius, 
through  the  fact  that  his  person,  his  thought, 
every  element  of  his  character  made  him  illus- 
trious above  all  ordinary  men,  and  revealed 
that  he  was  moved  by  a  mind  transcending 
the  given  conditions  by  the  faculty  of  vigorous 
perception  Every  one  is  genial,  if,  either  by 
heroism  or  by  fortitude  he  teaches  about  the 
divine  in  humanity. 

A  gradation  of  religious  leaders  is  not  easy 
to  make.  For  we  have  our  preconceived  no- 
tions as  to  them.     We  have  none  of  us  grown 


Prophecy.  85 

out  of  our  sectarian  teens ;  and  the  maturity 
of  full-grown  universality  in  spirit  and  tempera- 
ment is  not  yet  upon  us.  Besides,  we  ought 
to  know  these  men  by  a  sort  of  imitation  of 
their  subjectivity.  We  ought  to  strive  to 
know  them  almost  as  they  knew  themselves. 
This  is  very  hard.  To  delve  into  the  mysteries 
of  another  man's  soul-life  is  beyond  our  power. 
Only  fancy  can  help  us. 

Let  us  recall  here  the  distinction  between 
genius  and  talent.  Genius  has  only  the  intui- 
tion for  its  material,  with  which  to  accomplish 
its  great  work.  Now,  with  this  let  the  genius 
create  a  beautiful  song,  a  statue,  a  law,  a  faith, ^ 
and  let  the  talent  parody  it  in  his  plodding 
manner,  and  carry  it  abroad.  A  Moses  creating, 
a  Homer,  a  Raphael,  a  Michael  Angelo.  Jesus 
promulgating,^  Luther  reforming.  The  Jewish 
people  beholding  the  revelation  at  the  foot 
of   Sinai,    and    Christianity    interpreting    this 

'  "  Just  as  the  magnet  attracts  the  needle,  so  Moses  and  Mt. 
Sinai  were  drawn  toward  each  other  in  an  instant." — "  Sohar," 
II.,  21,  a. 

^  See  the  disciple  regarding  Jesus  as  a  Hillel,  Geiger's 
"  Vorlesungen  iiber  Geschichte  des  Judenthums,"  in  "  Zeit- 
schrift  fiir  Wissenschaft  u.  Leben,"  Jahrg.,  III.,  p.  30  ;  and 
Renan,  "Vie  de  Jesus,"  Paris,  1863,  p.  80.  Even  Delitzsch, 
in  his  rejoinder  to  both  Geiger  and  Renan,  cannot  deny  in 
toto  a  striking  similarity  and  possible  connection  between  the 
humanitarianism  of  Hillel  and  the  Messianic  teachings  of  the 
Essenes.  Vid.  "Jesus  und  Hillel,"  von  Franz  Delitzsch 
Erlangen,  1866. 


86  Prophecy. 

revelation  and  this  Judaism  to  Europe.  Here 
is  a  division  of  labor  :  the  producer  and  the 
distributor  ;  the  genius  and  the  talent. 

True,  the  dissemination  of  the  faith  is  a 
condition  of  its  value.  Some  one  may  hasten 
to  conclude,  since  Judaism  needed  the  mis- 
sionary labor  of  Christianity,  without  it  it 
would  not  have  been  known  outside  of  Pales- 
tine ;  hence,  even  from  the  Jewish  aspect,  the 
authentication  of  Christianity  is  made  out.  I 
fear  for  that  sort  of  logic.  Here  is  wheat  to 
furnish  bread.  To  whom  shall  we  be  grateful 
for  this  food  ?  To  the  farmer?  or  to  the  good 
soil  that  produced  the  rich  wheat?  No,  to  the 
freight-car,  to  the  railroad  track,  it  may  be  to 
the  engineer !  Suppose  the  farmer  had  not 
planted,  or  suppose  the  soil  had  refused  to 
bear  ?  All  the  railroads  in  the  world  could 
not  have  carried  one  solitary  grain  ! 

The  condition  of  will,  therefore,  is  not  rele- 
gated to  us  entirely.  There  seems  to  be  in  it 
also  the  will  of  God,  a  certain  pre-determina- 
tion,  a  contribution  from  the  hand  of  Provi- 
dence, in  addition  to  those  gifts,  which  are  de- 
livered to  us. 

Keeping  this  in  view,  we  shall  understand 
the  thesis  of  Maimonides,  who  says :  "  We 
believe  that,  even  if  one  has  the  capacity  for 
prophecy,  and  has  duly  prepared  himself,  it 
may   yet  happen   that    he   does    not  actually 


Prophecy.  8  7 

prophesy.  It  is,  in  that  case,  the  will  of  God 
[that  withholds  from  him  the  use  of  the 
faculty].  ...  As  for  the  principle  which 
I  laid  down,  that  preparation  and  perfec- 
tion of  moral  and  rational  faculties  are  the 
sine  qua  non,  our  sages  say  similarly :  '  The 
spirit  of  prophecy  rests  only  upon  those  who 
are  wise  [in  intellectual  attainments],  strong 
[in  vigor  of  character],  and  rich  [illustriously 
endowed  in  morals]."  '  And  he  gives  one  ex- 
ample, amongst  others,  to  illustrate  his  idea  : 
"As  to  the  revelation  on  Mt.  Sinai,  all  saw 
the  great  fire  and  heard  the  thunder,  that 
caused  such  an  extraordinary  terror  ;  but  only 
those  of  them  who  were  duly  qualified  were 
prophetically  inspired,  each  one  according  to 
his  capacities.  .  .  ."  Moses  rose  to  the 
highest  degree  of  prophecy,  according  to  the 
words  :  "  And  Moses  alone  shall  come  near 
the  Lord."  ^ 

Notice  his  account  of  the  Sinaitic  revela- 
tion more  closely  :  "■  There  is,  however,  an 
opinion  of  our  sages  to  this  eiTect :  The 
Israelites  heard  the  first  and  the  second  com- 
mandments from  God,  i.  e.,  they  learnt  the 
truth  of  the  principles  contained  in  these  two 

'  In  this  manner  the  Talmud  explains  these  four  condi- 
tions.     Vid.  "  Sabbath,"  30,  b. 

'^  "  More  Nebuchim,"  II.,  ch.  xxxii.  (English  translation, 
"  Guide  of  the  Perplexed,"  M.  Friedlander,  London,  1885,  Vol. 
II.,  pp.  163-165.) 


88  Prophecy. 

commandments  in  the  same  manner  as  Moses 
and  not  through  Moses.  For,  these  two  prin- 
ciples, the  existence  and  unity  of  God,  can  be 
arrived  at  by  means  of  reasoning,  and  what- 
ever can  be  established  by  proof  is  known  by 
the  prophet  in  the  same  way  as  by  any  other 
person ;  he  has  no  advantage  in  this  respect. 
These  two  principles  were  not  known  through 
prophecy  alone." ' 

It  is  sufificient  to  have  adverted  to  this. 
Prophet  and  genius  are  synonymous  terms.^ 
There  is  a  selection  in  both.  The  gift  of 
prophecy  is  exceptional.  It  may  be  said  that 
in    such    extraordinary  personages   we    have 

'  Z.  c,  chap,  xxxiii.,  Friedlander,  p.  167.  See  also  Joseph 
Albo,  "  Ikkarim,"  II.,  18. 

In  "  Kethuboth,"  39  ;  "  Sabbath,"  149,  allusion  is  made  in 
the  peculiarly  Ilaggadic  style  to  the  a  priori  notions  of  the  ex- 
istence and  of  the  unity  of  God.  All  men  and  all  women,  of 
all  nationalities,  says  the  Talmud,  were  ideally  present  at  the 
revelation  at  Mt.  Sinai ;  yea,  even  all  souls  which  will  here- 
after appear  on  earth  in  human  bodies. 

'■^ "  The  mind,  which  originally  conceives  supersensuous 
truisms,  together  with  the  im23ulse  to  promulgate  them,  is 
called  a  genius.  .  .  .  Genius  must.  It  has  no  will  of  its 
own.  ...  If  it  is  permitted  to  call  the  prophets  of  Israel 
geniuses,  we  must  certainly  be  permitted  to  rank  them  among 
the  highest  of  that  kind  ;  hence  their  characteristics  are  char- 
acteristics of  genius.  With  them,  there  can  be  no  doubt,  one 
of  the  characteristics  is  that  they  spoke  and  acted  by  an  irre- 
sistible impulse,  contrary  to  their  own  will  and  happiness  ; 
hence  this  impulse  must  be  characteristic  of  genius,  at  least  in 
its  loftiest  state." — Dr.  I.  M.  Wise,  "  Genius  in  History  and 
History  of  Genius,"  Ame7-ican  Israelite,  March  17,  1882. 


Prophecy.  89 

an  instance  of  wisdom  of  the  generations, 
having  slowly  accumulated  and  become  clar- 
ified and  finally  individualized  as  the  high- 
est power  of  prolonged  growth  of  commu- 
nal culture.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that 
genius  transcends  time,  and  is  not  retro- 
spective, but  prospective.  There  is  a  wide  dif- 
ference between  the  great  man  and  the 
prophet :  the  one  sums  up  in  himself  the  wis- 
dom of  his  age,  and  by  this  subtle  inspiration 
of  popular  wisdom  is  practical  ;  the  other 
however,  is  a  dreamer,  in  an  introspective  state 
of  mind,  very  impractical,  an  idealist.*  The 
great  man  is  a  leader  engaged  in  actual  work, 
the  returns  for  which  he  may  be  fortunate  to 
witness.  The  prophet  and  the  genius  (it  is  sad 
but  true)  has  not  often  the  gratitude  of  his  con- 
temporaries, for  these  likely  are  not  capable  of 
appreciating  him.  He  belongs  less  to  them 
than  to  the  coming  times.  If  there  is  any 
prophesying  of  future  events,  the  genius  does 
it.  He  is  oracular,  but  oracular  of  world- 
thoughts,  and  of  universal,  eternal  aims. 

'  The  Rabbis  perceived  the  psychological  character  of 
prophecy,  and  attributed  subjectivity  to  it  ;  so  that  they  are 
led  to  say  :  "  Not  two  prophets  declare  alike  what  is  com- 
municated to  them." — "Sanhedrin,"  89,  a. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

RELIGIOUS   BOOKS. 

Coordinate  with  the  history  of  the  concep- 
tions of  religion  are  the  histories  of  litera- 
ture and  of  art.  We  are  nowadays  tending 
towards  a  view  of  religion  in  which,  besides  the 
theological  authority,  deference  is  also  paid 
to  minds  maturing  in  literature  and  art.  The 
religious  effort  is  kindred  to  all  ennobling 
kinds  of  effort  which  aim  at  creating  the  best, 
at  giving  shape  to  thoughts  and  to  visions  of 
beauty  as  the  mind  and  the  genius  of  men 
conceive  them  ;  ideas  to  realize  which  they 
yearn,  and  never  cease  yearning. 

The  first  word  of  truth  and  of  honor  declared 
by  a  man  who  had  the  respect  of  his  fellow- 
men,  was  the  first  bible.  It  was  the  heirloom 
which  later  generations  held  in  veneration, 
until  a  newer  and  brighter  and  a  timely  word 
came  out  of  the  heart  of  another  genius  or 
prophet,  which,  in  its  turn,  corroborating  the 
worthy  and  the  honorable  in  the  first,  served  as 
the  translation,  as  it  were,  of  that  first  bible, 
done  into  a  fresh  and  living  language,  so  that 
90 


Religiotis  Books.  91 

the  humble  man  might  understand  it  and  take 
it  to  heart. 

The  life  of  the  great  man  has  always  drawn 
admiration  toward  him  because  of  his  dignity 
of  mind  and  of  character,  and  has  secured  the 
obedience  and  obeisance  of  the  crowd.  In- 
deed so  great  became  its  influence  that  every 
item  of  his  royal  conduct  became  of  con- 
cern and  of  interest.  The  biography  of  the 
leader  became  a  sort  of  literature,  which, 
passing  at  first  from  mouth  to  m.outh  among 
the  fearing  and  the  admiring,  grew  into  tales 
and  into  narratives,  and  finally  into  litera- 
ture. Thus  the  chief's  or  the  leader's  life  and 
conduct  became  the  prototype  according  to 
which  the  people  should  conduct  themselves 
and  emulate  his  example.  It  is  evident  that 
those  who  are  keen  to  observe  such  an  impres- 
sive guide  fell  gradually  into  a  habit  of  imita- 
tiveness,  and  that  this  devotion  grew  upon  them 
till  it  became  venerable,  to  alter  which  was  a 
lamentable  heterodoxy,  and  finally  turned  out 
to  be  held  sacred. 

There  is  no  department,  neither  in  the  men- 
tal  nor  in  the  emotional,  surely  not  in  the 
industrial  activities  of  mankind,  in  which,  if  we 
would  analyze  the  present  complicated  condi- 
tion, we  should  not  find  constituents  of  hero 
worship.  It  seems  as  if  this  affection  for 
genius  and  the  awe  at  the  display  of  excep- 


92  Religious  Books. 

tional  power  were  ingrained  into  the  nature  of 
humanity,  that  not  to  submit  at  some  time  to 
them  is  likely  an  evidence  of  obtuseness.  The 
conclusion  is  somewhat  justified,  that  the 
stronger  the  spirit  of  individuality  becomes  and 
the  more  we  insist  upon  the  play  of  well- 
balanced  determination  as  the  proper  and  only 
creditable  mode  of  character,  the  more  this 
sentiment  of  admiration  for  the  great  man 
dulls,  and  the  more,  in  the  gain  of  indepen- 
dence, a  loss  is  involved,  which  some  will  be 
loth  to  relinquish.  We  must  have  a  hero  at 
all  hazards.  He  will  be  merely  of  a  different 
kind. 

Manliness  is  more  than  boorish  strength. 
It  must  be  chastened.  Robustness  is  not 
strength.  The  fibres,  communicating  among 
themselves,  exchange  the  delicate  thrills  of 
nervous  pulsation.  They  are  made  efficient  by 
cooperation.  Human  kind  is  more  than  an 
aggregate.  The  individuals  coalesce  into  a 
unit,  and  the  life-blood  of  the  social  organism 
is  mutuality. 

This  mutuality  of  the  members  is  evinced 
in  the  relation  in  which  they  stand  towards 
the  best  man  of  the  community.  The 
benefits  received  from  him  unite  them  ;  the 
abuses  shared  by  them,  under  temporary  mis- 
guidance, bring  them  nearer  to  each  other. 
And  as  for  gratitude,  it  is  given  silently  and  as 


Religious  Books.  93 

affectionately  as  the  child  full  of  love  looking 
up  into  the  eyes  of  its  parents.  There  is  affec- 
tion for  the  popular  hero  which  does  not  rest 
content  with  encomiums  and  conventional 
honors,  *but  goes  as  far  as  apotheosis  and 
deification. 

In  the  history  of  religions  the  hero  celebrates 
his  carnival  of  praise.  Here  the  holiest  mat- 
ters are  dedicated  to  him  ;  here  he  is  enshrined, 
and  his  name  is  set  in  an  untarnishing  halo. 
He  meets  us  on  the  first  page  we  open  in 
the  books  which  serve  for  edification.  The 
lessons  of  religion  generally  take  their  texts 
from  his  life.     The  bible  is  his  biography. 

All  races  have  their  bibles,  for  each  of  them 
has  its  pantheon.  There  is  a  gradation  of  in- 
trinsic worth,  to  be  sure,  and  there  are  men 
whom  we  would  not  emulate.  But  they  have 
had  their  following  in  their  day,  and  the  incense 
was  burnt  to  them  by  a  devout  public,  and 
so  they  must  be  given  a  place  in  the  history  of 
religion.'  Nay,  more  ;  they  must  be  estimated 
in  a  benevolent  way.  For,  having  been 
chosen  leaders,  do  they  not  exemplify  those 
who  chose  them  ?  Are  they  not  honored,  for 
that  which  people  thought  worth  honoring? 
So  that  we  shall  not  dispose  of  men,  nor  decide 
their  worth,  but  we  deal  with  stages  of  civiliza- 
tion and  epochs  of  culture. 

'  See  page  84. 


94  Religious  Books. 

If  the  great  man  gives  the  text  of  the  bible, 
the  nation  gives  the  spirit.  For,  evidently, 
that  of  which  they  are  fond  of  speaking  con. 
cerning  him  is  their  choice  ;  and  choice  is  a 
hint  to  character.  Selection  of  a  type  of  re- 
ligious conduct  is  a  testimony  to  the  principle  of 
religion,  which  they  regard  as  proper.  The  holy 
books  of  the  races  and  of  the  nations  in  history, 
the  library  of  these  alleged  inspired  books, 
which  were  successively  venerated  as  the  re- 
spective best  rendition  of  the  best  thought 
and  the  best  object,  is  an  epitome  of  the  his- 
tory of  civilization,  a  concise  statement  of 
what  each  people  and  each  race  and  what  all 
races  and  all  mankind  collectively  have  at- 
tained as  the  result  of  their  prolonged  efforts. 

Analyzing  these  various  bibles  (and  there 
are  many  of  them)  we  shall  adduce  plentiful 
evidence  of  the  tentative  character  of  the  in- 
tellectual life  in  the  past  and  a  conviction,  also 
that  for  the  future  there  will  be  merely  at- 
tempts, a  few  more  guesses  at  the  same  pro- 
found problem  of  eternity. 

Some  one  stands  on  a  high  place,  sees  more 
and  farther,  from  a  clearer  atmosphere  in  a 
brighter  light.  Moses,  from  Sinai,  from  a 
height  of  sanctified  ideality,  which  is  forever 
striving  and  shall  never  cease  to  strive  after 
the  best.  Jesus  preaching  on  the  mount  hu- 
mility and  asceticism  which  are  liable  to  thin 


Religious  Books.  95 

out  into  a  mortified  transcendentalism.  Mo- 
hammed, grasping  for  the  eternal  joys  which  his 
appetite  craves  for,  unable  to  subdue  it.  Bud- 
dha, dissolving  into  dreamland,  all  conscious- 
ness dissipated,  floating  into  a  realm  where 
the  greatest  bliss  is  :  not  to  be.  But  each  one 
of  them  has  the  hearts  of  many  people.  As 
such  let  us  approach  them  with  the  earnestness 
of  students  and  with  the  sympathy  of  men. 

Will  I  be  suspected  of  dogmatism  if,  after 
mature  deliberation,  I  make  an  assertion  and 
reserve  judgment  on  the  point  ?  Balancing 
intrinsic  values,  and  checking  off  differences, 
being  careful  to  get  to  the  residual  quantity  of 
the  essential  contents  of  the  Jewish  Bible,  I 
claim  that  it  is  the  best  and  the  most  promis- 
ing expression  of  religious  conception.  I  claim 
no  perfection  for  it ;  that  is  beyond  the  scope 
of  any  doctrinal  effort  to  attain.  A  bible  is  a 
record  of  tradition.  Our  own,  leaving  out  of 
view  the  theological  questions  involved,  is  also 
a  book  of  literature.  But  literature  is  avowedly 
a  repository  of  either  of  two  creations  of 
mind  or  of  both  :  either  of  the  general  mental 
habit  of  the  people  of  whom  it  treats,  or  of  the 
best  thoughts  of  its  most  prominent  men. 
The  one  is  popular,  the  other  is  genial  ;  the 
latter  being  as  much  beyond  the  people  as 
ideality  is  removed  from  practice.  Whatever 
is   biblical   (and    I    embrace    under   the    term 


96  Religious  Books. 

"  biblical "  others  besides  the  traditionally- 
Jewish  one)  is  literary  as  much  as  it  is  re- 
ligious, historical  as  much  as  it  is  theological. 
The  literary  element  in  the  characterization  of 
the  Bible  should  be  dwelt  upon  more  than  is 
the  practice,  to  the  greater  illumination  of  it.* 

Literature  is  not  foreign  to  religion ;  both 
are  fed  by  the  spirit  of  the  people.  There  is 
not  a  line  written  to-day  but  what  has  for  its 
substratum  the  religious  tone  of  our  time. 
Some  render  this  general  character  of  contem- 
poraneous religion  unconsciously,  some  lift 
themselves  out  of  it,  and  by  their  profounder 
vision  become  known  as  prophetic.  They  are 
instances  of  a  manhood,  to  the  records  of 
which  reverence  and  later  on  sanctity  are  at- 
tached. Theif  biographies  are  transformed  in 
the  course  of  time  into  bibles,  and  their  say- 
ings are  quoted  as  ethical  maxims.  Being 
frequently  narrated  they  finally  become  pro- 
verbial and  public  property.  I  know  not  but 
what  bibles  are  significant,  besides  through 
priestly  authority,  perhaps  through  the  fact  that 

'"  Some  of  these  ancient  sayings  were  preserved  because 
they  were  so  true  and  so  striking  that  they  could  not  be  for- 
gotten. They  contained  eternal  truths,  expressed  for  the  first 
time  in  human  language.  Of  such  oracles  of  truth  it  was  said 
in  India  that  they  had  been  heard,  sruta,  and  from  it  arose 
the  word  sruti,  the  recognized  term  for  divine  revelation  in 
Sanskrit." — Max  Muller,  Preface  to  the  "Sacred  Books  of 
the  East,"  Vol.  I.,  p.  xiii. 


Religious  Books.  97 

they  enjoy  recognition  in  a  literary  sense. 
Being  universally  acknowledged  of  superior 
order,  we  have  a  warrant  for  the  literary  worth 
of  the  Bible,  since  only  the  best  products  of 
mind  are  thus  received.  The  public  is  fastidious 
in  its  criticism,  and  is  as  ready  as  a  magazine 
editor  to  throw  bad  poetry  and  bad  essays  into 
the  waste  basket.  The  public  uses  it  preroga- 
tive for  recommendation  as  well  as  for  con- 
demnation. The  Bible  deserves  being  rated 
high  that,  through  the  shifting  of  public  taste, 
it  has  stood  its  ground  well.  Even  now  no  one 
has  yet  deliberately  dulled  his  inherited  vene- 
ration for  this  ancient  monument  of  religious 
fervor  so  much  as  to  throw  the  Bible  off 
peremptorily,  denying  to  it  every  good  quality. 
That  some  believe  to  have  found  flaws  in  it 
may  be  a  matter  to  disprove  or  to  admit  ; 
but  it  is  allowed  on  all  sides  that  it  is  a  tra- 
dition which  depicts  faithfully  the  intellectual 
and  religious  status  of  the  Jewish  people.'  It 
is  an  acknowledged  record,  whose  chapters  and 
verses  and  language  are  the  skeleton  of  the 
spirit  which  prevailed  among  the  Jewish  people. 
No  work  of  literature  can  claim  more.  This 
claim  being  uncombated,  even  by  the  most 
radical  critics,  we  may  safely  say  that  this 
credit  is  guaranteed  to  the  Bible. 

'  See  Colenso,  "  The  Pentateuch  and  the  Book  of  Joshua," 
London,  1865,  p.  176  ;  and  Wellhausen,  "  Prolegomena  to 
the  History  of  Israel,"  Edinburgh,  1885,  p.  321,  et  seq. 


98  Religious  Books. 

But  there  is  a  proviso  to  be  made,  lest  this 
be  misunderstood.  Literary  value  does  not  in- 
volve attaching  significance  to  its  literalness. 
In  fact  nothing  is  more  diametrically  opposed 
to  the  pedantic  adherence  to  verbal  exactness 
than  literary  effort.  An  author  desires  to  ren- 
der his  thought.  The  thought  is  the  prime 
aim.  He  throws  the  arrows  of  his  words  and 
phrases  at  the  mark  his  genius  has  set.  All 
literature  is  tentative,  and  biblical  literature  is 
no  exception.'  In  so  far  as  one  of  the  com- 
ponent parts  of  the  Bible  is  the  product  of 
individual  mind,  only  an  approximate  ren- 
dition of  the  profound  suggestion  can  be  ex- 
pected. No  more.  The  prophet  is  profuse  in 
similes  ;  he  is  eloquent  in  the  attempts  to  do 
justice  to  the  sacred  truths,  he  has  set  himself 
to  be  the  oracle  of.  But  though  he  dwells 
in  a  sphere  of  high  intellectuality,  the  dicta 
of  his  intuition  do  not  leap  out  of  him  in 
the  full  panoply  of  divineness.  It  detracts 
from  the  dignity  of  prophecy  to  expect  the 
impossible  from  it.  Let  us  be  grateful  for  the 
abundant  siiggestivencss  of  the  prophets,  and 
then  we  appreciate  them  the  more  substantially. 
For  to  him  who  throws  out  the  seed,  so  that  it 

'  Matthew  Arnold,  "  Literature  and  Dogma,"  London, 
1883,  p.  31.  With  respect  to  the  enthusiastic  temperament 
of  the  Jew  and  the  consequent  vivacity  in  Jewish  writings 
and  in  the  conduct  of  the  Jews,  see  Jellinek,  "  Der  judische 
Stamm,"  Wien,  1869,  p.  16. 


Religious  Books.  99 

bear  fruit,  to  him  who  scatters  the  seed  with 
full  hand,  is  due  the  harvest,  which  we  gather. 
If  we  should  sum  up  the  data  of  the  history  of 
culture,  we  shall  find  those  were  the  helpers 
toward  progress  who  suggested  rather  than 
accomplished.  For,  in  the  duties,  interests, 
and  circumstances  of  mankind,  no  one  is  en- 
dowed adequately,  so  that  he  could  create  the 
perfect.  With  respect  to  secular  as  well  as 
religious  literature,  it  were  well  to  consider 
that  both  are  distinguished  by  this  feature  of 
suggestiveness,  the  one  more,  the  other  less. 
The  merit  in  them,  on  the  whole,  is  the  degree 
of  promise.  True,  the  sacred  library,  then,  be- 
comes larger  ;  the  "  Principia  "  of  Newton  and 
the  "  First  Principles  "  of  Herbert  Spencer  are 
part  of  it.  So  much  the  better.  Our  time  is 
rife  with  suggestiveness.  Attainments  of  to- 
day are  provisional.  As  in  the  industrial,  so  in 
the  religious  world.  The  patent  issued  to-day 
is  likely  to  be  made  valueless.  All  our  grand 
machinery  may  turn  out  to  be  antiquated, 
through  the  inventive  energies,  which  never 
rest.  So  in  the  mental  activities,  we  must 
content  ourselves  with  doing  no  more  than 
hinting  at  the  new  thought.  Those  that  will 
be  after  us  will  see  things  better,  and  there 
shall  rise  from  amongst  them  a  better  spokes- 
man in  behalf  of  the  better  to  be  striven  after, 
and   he,  in    his  turn,  will   leave    the  work  of 


loo  Religious  Books. 

regeneration,  to  his  successor,  to  do  it  more 
efficiently  and  with  better  insight.  Laplace 
cries  Eureka!  as  he  peers  into  the  sky  and  sees 
the  myriads  of  stars  coordinate  their  silent, 
eternal  movements  according  to  his  calcula- 
tions, and  leaves  the  science  to  his  heirs  to 
make  the  best  of  it.  The  history  of  progress 
traces  the  incentives  and  the  origin  of  all 
improving  and  culturing  efforts  through  a  suc- 
cession of  genial  hints. 

This  is  the  main  content  of  the  world's 
bibles.  So  long  as  they  are  auspices  of  the 
destinies  of  mankind,  and  the  teachings  of 
them  are  still  ideals  and  hopes,  they  are  sacred. 
As  soon,  however,  as  they  merely  mark  mile- 
stones in  the  history  of  culture,  relating  what  is 
acquired  and  realized,  their  worth — that  is,  their 
power  for  edification,  reenforcing  the  energies 
of  men  and  giving  import  to  their  work — is  lost 
to  them  as  in  proportion  their  usefulness  is 
lost. 

This  is  the  measure  which  should  be  put  on 
biblical  literature.  The  important  question  to 
be  decided  is :  Does  this  bible  or  that  bible 
teach  doctrines  which  at  this  stage  of  our  his- 
tory are  confirmed  or  contradicted  by  the 
present  state  of  knowledge  and  are  these  doc- 
trines no  longer  or  still  valid?  Not  the  an- 
tiquity of  the  Bible,  but  the  juvenility  of 
its   spirit,   is   telling.     How  the   better   is   to 


Religious  Books.  loi 

come,  and  how  men  will  have  and  will  be  the 
better — that  is  the  doctrine  with  respect  to 
which  a  bible  must  make  declaration.  For 
this  there  obtains  an  undiminishing  sanctity. 
Reducing  the  sentiment  of  veneration  to  its 
elements,  we  find  it  to  consist  of  admiration  of 
the  better  and  the  wiser,  and  of  attachment  to 
the  more  promising, — an  attitude  of  respectful 
expectancy. 

In  so  far  as  the  Bible  renders  the  status  of 
public  disposition  and  is  the  mirror  of  popular 
mind  and  of  popular  morality,  we  may  say  it' 
is  a  faithful  record,  and  it  must  be  respected 
for  that.  But  respect  for  it  ought  not  to  be 
limited  to  this.  The  narrative  of  past  experi- 
ences is  venerable  ;  it  is  valuable  only  when 
the  light  of  other  aspects  is  thrown  upon  it. 
There  are  supplementary  data  which  must  be 
taken  into  consideration.  The  ethnology  and 
the  archaeology  of  the  people,  the  industrial, 
political  facts  concerning  them  must  be  fixed  be- 
fore an  estimate  can  be  formed  of  that  people 
and  of  the  intrinsic  worth  of  their  writings. 
Literature  is  the  word-mirror  of  the  national 
spirit,  but  the  national  spirit  is  the  product  of 
many  confluent  causes. 

The  Jewish  Bible  is  such  a  mirror  of  the 
Jewish  nation.  It  is,  like  every  national  litera- 
ture, inspirited  with  the  genius  of  the  nation, 
and   depicts   it.      In    this   lies   no   distinctive 


I02  Religious  Books. 

merit  that  would  mark  the  Jewish  Bible  off 
from  the  others.  But  in  the  special  instance, 
not  of  national  but  of  individual  genius,  in 
which  ambitious  ideas  are  thrown  out  by  pow- 
erful minds,  which  even  now  are  a  vast  hope 
and  an  expectation, — in  this  the  Jewish  Bible 
is  exceptional  in  the  class  of  sacred  literature. 
The  Jewish  Bible  presents  God  not  as  a  dra- 
matic person,  of  superlative  passions  and  fan- 
cies, and  of  royal  conduct,  patterned  anthropo- 
morphically.  Even  in  the  sense  of  being  a 
book  of  popular  religion,  it  is  of  high  charac- 
ter. The  Jewish  people  are  reflected  in  the 
history  of  Judaism.  Within  Judaism  the  con- 
cept God  has  had  modifications.  The  dis- 
tinctively Jewish  conception  of  God  is  that 
He  is  recognizable  most  illustriously  in  history. 
The  Jewish  God  is  identical  with  Providence. 
And  in  the  characterization  of  religion  by  the 
prophets,  God  is  ceaselessly  provident.  Re- 
ligious conduct  is  striving  to  do  the  will  of  God. 
Judaism  teaches  that  morality  is  the  temper 
in  which  we  feel  ourselves  to  be  identified  with 
the  universal  purpose  which  we  know  is  bene- 
ficent. Judaism  recognizes  that  the  best  rend- 
ering of  the  thought  that  God  is,  lies  in  the 
words  that  He  is  Providence.  The  best  con- 
duct is  that  which  is  at  union  with  the  conduct 
of  God  as  it  is  manifest  in  the  world. 

Hence  just  as  the  writing  of  a  history  of  Ju- 


Religions  Books.  103 

daism  involves  the  bringing  into  every  chapter 
of  it  universal  history,  so  the  Jew  himself  feels 
it  to  be  his  duty  as  a  Jew  to  be  cosmopolitan, 
and  to  see  at  all  times  the  finger  of  God  di- 
recting. The  Jew  hails  as  a  contribution  to 
life  every  thing  that  comes  from  the  wheel  of 
providential  fortune,  and  every  contribution 
is  helpful  to  the  working  out  of  life,  if  not  of 
the  individual,  at  any  rate  of  mankind. 

The  history  of  the  Jews  will  bear  this  out. 
This  contemplation  and  deification  of  Provi- 
dence, which  will  be  readily  seen  is  different 
from  fatalism,  peeps  out  continuously  in  the 
career  of  the  Jews.  And  here  is  the  grand 
distinction  of  Jewish  prophets  and  thinkers. 
In  Moses,  Maimonides,  and  Mendelssohn,  the 
same  thought  and  the  same  ideal  is  central. 
However  much  they  depart  from  each  other  in 
the  incidental  features  of  religious  philosophy 
and  ritual  practice  (these  being  allied  with  di- 
versity of  age),  the  same  spiritual  breath  is  vi- 
tal in  all  three.'  The  Biblical  and  the  modern 
Jews  are  children  of  the  same  spirit ;  and  as  to 
the  ancient  Bible,  the  Jew  thinks,  when  the 
spirit  of  it  will  be  permitted   to  walk  in  the 

'Exodus,  XXXIII.,  13  ff.  ;  "More  Nebuchim,"  III., 
17  and  51,  Engl,  translation  vol.  III.,  pp.  74  and  288  ;  Moses 
Mendelssohn,  Jerusalem,  "  Gesammelte  Schriften,"  Band 
III.,  p.  348  ;  and  more  at  length,  "  Sache  Gottes  oder  die 
gerettete  Vorsehung,"  in  "  Ges.  Schr.,"  Bd.  II.,  p.  413  ff. 


I04  Religions  Books. 

light  of  day  without  peril  of  obscuration  by 
bigotry,  and  will  have  secured  respect,  it  will 
wed  the  spirit  of  the  future,  as  the  bright 
stars  sometimes  kiss  each  other  and  grow  into 
one  ;  then  the  Bible  will  be  closed. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE    STANDARD    OF  MORALITY. 

The  question  was  asked  in  one  of  the  schools 
in  Babylon  ' :  "  What  is  the  position  of  the 
Law  toward  the  sinner?"  His  penalty  is, 
was  the  answer,  he  shall  bring  a  sacrifice,  and 
that  will  procure  him  remission  of  his  sin. 
"  What  is  the  position  of  the  prophets  towards 
sin?"  The  soul  that  sinneth,  that  shall  die. 
"What  is  the  teaching  of  natural  religion?" 
Confession  of  the  sin  before  God  and  repentance 
of  it  bring  forgiveness.  But  Rabbi  Jose  add- 
ed :  "  Man  is  judged  every  day  of  his  life  "  ; 
yea,  declared  Rabbi  Nathan,  every  hour! 

This  quotation  gives  us  a  history  of  Jewish 
ethics.  The  only  feature  about  it  to  be  re- 
gretted is  that  it  is  in  negative  form.  But  it 
gives  us  concisely  the  various  stages  of  concep- 
tion which  obtained  successively  in  Judaism. 
From  the  biblical  sacrificial  cult  to  the 
period  of  rationalism  at  the  close  of  the 
Talmud  the  position  of  Judaism  as  to 
moral  responsibility  is  clearly  stated.  At  the 
time  of  the  priesthood  moral  derelictions  in- 

'"  Rosh  Hashono,"  i6,  a. 
105 


io6         TJie  Standard  of  Morality. 

volved  no  more  than  material  consequences, 
the  yielding  up  of  some  desirable  property. 
God  was  party  to  a  compact  with  man,  and  man, 
having  infringed  upon  it,  was  in  duty  bound  to 
make  restitution.  Or,  God  must  be  propitiated, 
and  so  the  sacrificial  present  was  sent  upward 
to  conciliate.  And  the  prophetic  declaration  : 
"  The  soul  that  sinneth,  that  shall  die,"  finding 
its  best  type  in  Ezekiel,  Ch.  XVIII. ,  is  a  con- 
siderable advance.  Henceforth  sin  is  not  to  be 
atoned  for  by  the  death  of  animals,  but  by  visi- 
tation upon  the  person  sinning.  There  shall 
be  no  placating  God  by  gifts,  but  reparation 
shall  be  exacted  from  the  man  himself.  Be- 
yond this,  as  an  appreciable  progress,  is  that 
view  of  morality  which  embraces  not  only  the 
act  and  its  consequences,  and  fixes  the  responsi- 
bility upon  the  author,  but  also  the  play  of 
motives  in  the  act,  and  weighs  them  in  the 
balance  of  a  refined  conscience.  This  leads  us  to 
an  important  phase  in  the  history  of  morals. 
Justice  is  coming  to  be  noticed  as  having  also  a 
share  in  the  recompense  for  good  and  evil.  The 
Jew  was  continually  conscious  of  the  Almighty 
in  the  high  heavens  writing  into  his  book  of  life. 
As  to  justice,  it  sometimes  was  hard  to  believe 
that  such  an  unfailing  and  irreproachable  God 
presided  over  the  universe,  but  the  notion  ob- 
tained, and  was  valid,  until  it  yielded  to  the  con- 
ception of  Providence — Providence  that  judges 


The  Standard  of  Morality.         107 

every  hour !  She  holds  all,  and  weighs  all,  and 
judges  all.  She  is  the  divine  wisdom — and  even 
justice  is  only  subject  to  her.  You  see  the 
gradation.  But,  as  I  say,  it  is  preferable  to 
deal  with  positive  data  in  matters  of  ethics, 
and  this  quotation  of  ours,  however  concise  a 
digest  it  be  of  the  historical  succession,  does 
not  suffice  for  a  good  definition  of  ethics  itself. 
This  is  a  fault  which  ethical  declarations 
generally  have,  that  laws  of  conduct  are  nega- 
tive, for  ethics  is  the  practice  of  religion,  and 
since  perforce  it  must  meddle  in  the  doings 
of  men  or  else  it  forfeits  its  worth  and  sinks 
into  theory  and  speculation,  unrelated  to  the 
vital  interests  of  men's  lives,  it  must  assert 
itself  in  the  first  best  way.  I  do  not  say  that 
such  negative  statements  of  a  moral  tendency 
as  :  "  What  does  not  please  thee,  do  not  to  thy 
neighbor,*"  are  not  lofty  and  are  not  apt  to  con- 
duce to  restraints  worthy  and  commendable. 
But  it  is  saying  nothing  deprecatory  of  the 
maxim,  when  we  advert  to  the  fact  that  so  long 
as  we  rest  content  with  merely  restraining,  we 
have  not  yet  done  any  thing  to  induce  the 
highest  moral  motives.  One,  who  must  be 
helped  along  with   warnings  and   admonitions, 

'  "  Sabbath,"  31,  b.,  cf.  Matthew  vii.,  12.  Kant,  "  Grund- 
legung  sur  Metaphysik  der  Sitten,"  p.  68,  has  shown  that  in 
the  light  of  the  categoric  imperative  this  is  not  valid,  as  a 
universal  regulation. 


io8         The  Standard  of  Morality. 

is  not  yet  entirely  to  be  trusted  ;  but  the  ob- 
ject of  religion  and  the  merit  of  a  man  is  that 
he  can  be  relied  on  to  do  the  right  and  not  to 
swerve  from  it.  Otherwise  he  is  not  yet  moral- 
ly matured  and,  speaking  with  reference  to  the 
science  of  ethics,  not  yet  responsible. 

But  it  is  agreed  that  it  is  just  a  condition  of 
moral  worth  that  in  the  determination  of 
actions  and  in  the  choice  of  lines  of  conduct, 
the  independent  reason  and  the  individuality 
of  the  man  are  involved.  We  designate  a  cer- 
tain purpose  or  a  certain  deed  as  good  or  as 
bad,  and  award  merit  or  demerit  with  respect, 
not  so  much  to  the  act  itself,  as  to  the  source 
whence  it  was  suggested.  In  fact,  we  recognize 
nothing  as  indicative  of  maturing  in  a  child,  as 
when  we  notice  that  he  is  growing  gradually 
out  of  control,  and  prefers  resting  upon  his 
own  subjectivity.  The  difference  between 
youth  and  manhood  is  the  marked  transition 
from  the  first  condition,  in  which  the  circum- 
scription of  soul-life  was  within  that  of  the 
parents,  into  another  condition,  in  which  the 
interests  of  the  growing  man  become  detached 
more  and  more  from  the  identification  with 
those  of  the  parents,  and  gravitate  into  limits 
of  their  own,  which  he  henceforth  superintends 
and  guards  himself.  We  regard  the  hortatory 
character  of  moral  precepts  in  the  same  way. 
They  are  preparatory  and  valid  provisionally, 


The  Standard  of  Moj^ality.         109 

the  end  being  the  complete  emancipation  and 
self-assertion  of  the  man.  So  that  if  there 
shall  be  mention  of  sin,  it  shall  be  in  the  sense 
of  such  dereliction  or  criminality  as  can  be 
traced  directly,  disregarding  complicity  of 
others  and  surely  vicarious  extenuation,  to  the 
passions  of  the  man,  which  he,  despite  the  dic- 
tates of  reason  and  with  perverted  will,  refused 
to  curb  and  constrain  into  the  service  of  the 
good/  Thus  let  men's  lives  be  judged.  By  their 
virtues  and  vices  proclaiming  whether  they  are 
masters,  not  only  to  interfere,  but  to  command. 
We  hold  to  this  thought  of  ethics,  and  esti- 
mate the  status  of  self-conscious  and  self- 
determining  morality  as  the  only  legitimate 
and  healthful  instance  of  conduct.  We  mean 
to  imply,  to  be  sure,  nothing  derogatory  to 
many  estimable  careers  that  are  ordered  other- 
wise. They  are  worthy  as  far  as  they  go,  and 
are  set  into  scene  within  their  circumstances, 
both  intrinsic  and  extrinsic.  Laying  the  meas- 
ure of  absolute  ethics  on  the  doings  of  man,  the 
resultant  disproportion  in  which  the  individual 
cases  come  to  be  seen  is  in  no  way  meant  as  a 
disparagement.     We  are  expected  to  lead  an 

'  "  Sukka,"  52,  b.  "By  as  much  as  a  man's  vices  are  more 
stringent  than  another  man's,  by  so  much  he  evinces  himself 
as  greater,  manifesting  by  the  subduing  of  them  a  regnant  in- 
dividuality." So  also  :  "  There  will  be  no  evil  disposition 
{i.  <?.,  passions)  in  the  days  to  come." 


1 1  o  The  Sta7idard  of  Morality. 

ideal  moral  life  no  more  than  it  is  possible  to 
lead  an  ideal  industrial  life.  We  fall  grievously 
short  of  attaining  that  desirable  prosperity  for 
which  in  the  abstract  opportunities  are  offered, 
but  in  reality  never  entirely  turned  to  our  ben- 
efit. But  we  can  pass  judgment  on  the  system 
of  morality  of  the  various  religions,  each  of 
which  claims  to  inculcate  a  morality  suf^cient 
for  and  applicable  to  the  needs  of  life.* 

What  shall  we  say  concerning  the  relation  of 
morality  and  religion  ?  According  to  received 
notions  the  two  are  not  as  intimately  con- 
nected as  we  might  suppose.  In  fact,  religion 
being  generally  conceived  as  a  theory  concern- 
ing God  and  all  deductions  from  that  theory, 
it  is  not  always  made  plain  that  these  have 
any  bearing  on  the  laws  of  conduct.  On  the 
contrary,  in  the  case  of  primitive  religion,  and 
we  can  safely  say  also  in  the  case  of  the  poly- 
theism of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  it  would 
not  be  just  to  them  to  identify  their  religion 
with  their  morals.  For  the  latter  was  infi- 
nitely higher,  and  in  every  detail  a  contradiction 
of  their  theology.  Zeus,  the  passionate,  can- 
not pose,  and  was  not  intended  by  the  Greeks 
themselves  to  be  understood,  as  the  type  after 
which  the  devotees  were  to  pattern  their  con- 

'  "  Sabbath,"  93.  "  We  forego  the  contemplation  of  tran- 
scendant  matters,  and  devote  ourselves  to  the  consideration  of 
the  affairs  of  this  world." 


The  Standard  of  Morality.         1 1 1 

duct.  The  notion  that  the  divine  was  outside 
of  the  world,  entirely  distinct  from  the  world, 
as  the  tyrant  was  apart  from  the  people  he 
ruled,  brought  in  its  train  the  thought  that  the 
deities  were  also  above  all  law,  and  that  they 
evinced  their  exalted  power  by  contravening 
the  usual  and  regular.  The  divine  enjoyed 
unlimited  indulgence.  Unrestrained  power  is 
in  every  sense  arbitrary,  and  since  the  hands  of 
the  gods  were  bound  on  no  side,  but  were  free 
to  execute  their  majestic  will  and  indulge  their 
passions,  there  was  an  unquestioned  right  vested 
in  them  to  do  their  pleasure.  And  so  it  came  to 
pass  that  among  a  highly  cultured  people  like 
the  Greeks,  having  a  well  organized  social 
status,  with  laws  and  enactments  that  turned 
upon  delicate  points  of  right  and  duty,  with  a 
refined  public  spirit  and  reverence,  a  popular  re- 
ligion obtained,  which  was  diametrically  hostile 
in  spirit  to  the  perpetuation  of  all  this.  A  proof 
for  the  fact  that  religion  and  morality  were 
thought  to  be  essentially  distinct. 

But  we  have  outgrown  both  this  and  also 
the  perversion  of  the  Middle  Ages,  The  once 
current  diatribe,  "  Do  not  as  I  do,  but  do  as  I 
say,"  has  lost  its  application  to  any  one,  except 
to  the  notoriously  perverse.  We  have  learned 
to  know  better  about  morals. 

Religion  is  no  longer  simply  a  theory,  but  it 
is  a  practice.     The  question  is  not :  what  do 


1 1 2  The  Standard  of  Morality. 

you  believe  ?  but :  how  about  your  life  ? 
With  much  deference  for  every  wise  dis- 
quisition about  things  to  build  our  faith  on, 
we  are  bold  to  say  that  speculations  concern- 
ing the  deity  do  not  solely  determine  the 
character  of  our  conduct.  The  considera- 
tions, which  were  thought  to  be  the  all- 
important  condition  of  the  quality  of  our 
manhood,  have  dwindled  into  their  proper 
size  before  the  growing  conviction  that  the 
paramount  concern  of  our  life  is  what  sort  of 
character  we  manifest  by  our  deeds  and  by 
the  manner  we  bear  ourselves  in  our  dealings 
with  our  fellow  men.  We  go  farther.  We  are 
satisfied  with  the  conduct  of  the  man,  and  are 
willing  to  accept  him  into  our  religious  fra- 
ternity, provided  his  conduct  can  pass  muster. 
The  character  is  all-decisive  ;  the  deed  is  all- 
demonstrative.  The  word,  the  letter,  grows 
sere  with  age,  the  book  becomes  antiquated, 
the  dogma  is  touched  by  the  acid  of  criticism 
(and  a  biting,  corroding  acid  it  is).  But  the 
spirit  is  ever  young  and  never  fades,  and  can 
live  in  perennial,  youthful  vigor.  The  work 
of  our  hands,  let  that  be  firmly  established  ! 
We  care  not  so  much  whether  the  musket  the 
soldier  raises  to  his  shoulder  have  a  stain,  so 
long  as  his  shot  hit  the  mark.  And  we  flatter 
ourselves  to  believe  that  he  who  aims  well, 
having  sent  home  his  aim  safely,  will  be  able, 


The  Standard  of  Morality.         1 1 3 

when  the  roll  is  called,  to  raise  his  hand  in 
honor. 

But  though  in  this  expectation  of  work  and 
deed,  and  making  the  quality  of  that  the 
criterion,  we  may  be  presumptuous,  and 
though  we  claim  immunity  from  blame,  nay, 
award  of  merit  to  all  those  who,  with  the 
capacities  of  which  they  are  possessed,  strive 
to  accomplish  the  best,  still  we  are  profoundly 
humble.  When  we  think  of  that  ideal  purity, 
of  transcendent  loftiness  of  spirit,  which,  bet- 
ter equipped  and  greater  in  soul-strength,  has 
taken  hold  of  the  reins  of  government  within, 
and  does  not  only  restrain  desires  and  pas- 
sions, but  more  heroically  goes  out  in  its 
spiritual  independence  to  seek  virtue  and 
to  practise  it,  then  we  know  our  littleness, 
imperfection,  and  weakness.  Then  the  little 
goodness  and  timorous  piety  in  us  dwindle 
into  puerile  attempts,  and  we  understand 
what  it  means  when  we  say  that  prophets 
only  move  thus  in  the  region  of  spiritual- 
ity. So  that,  while  we  insist  on  it  that  we  be 
received  not  ungraciously,  because  we  have 
been  independent  of  tradition  and  theory,  we 
assert  that  we  have,  let  us  say,  striven  honestly 
and  seriously  to  adjust  our  life  and  our  inter- 
est in  order  that  they  fit  and  are  in  harmony 
with  the  communal  welfare. 

Neither  tradition  nor  theoretic  religion  has 


114  ^^^  Standard  of  Morality. 

a  right  to  brand  a  peaceable  life  as  immoral, 
just  because  it  was  not  turned  out  of  their 
workshop.  I  will  not  say  that  the  geniuses 
of  the  world  have  not  allowed  themselves  to 
be  trampled,  even  by  consecrated  authority. 
Since  many  of  them  were  leaders  of  religious 
movements,  this  might  not  be  clear.  But  it  is 
demonstrable  that  in  the  humble  man,  who 
lays  no  claim  to  extraordinary  gifts,  but  who 
plods  along  the  path  of  his  life  in  the  manner 
in  which  the  weight  of  his  body  and  the 
specific  gravity  of  his  character  permit  him, 
this  is  the  very  virtue  of  his  reticent  but  harm- 
less conduct.  He  has  made  choice  of  the  good 
according  to  his  best  information,  and  persisted 
in  doing  it.  When  we  pick  out  of  this  unpre- 
tentious career  these  elements,  by  which  the 
man  manifests  that  he  was  conscious  of  being 
above  his  condition,  and  by  this  means  declares 
it,  by  an  assertion  of  mastery,  how  much  will 
there  be  cause  for  admiration,  when  the  more 
endowed,  or  when  the  rare  minds  give  display 
of  their  power,  and  throw  out  their  grand  soul 
upon  the  scene  of  their  life,  darkening  every 
thing  else,  and  letting  the  lustre  of  their  indi- 
viduality shine. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THEORIES  OF  ETHICS. 

Abstractions  have  no  material  value  ;  they 
may  be  of  consequence  in  the  theory  of  things, 
but  have  no  immediate  bearing,  and  surely  no 
factitive  influence  upon  the  affairs  of  the  day 
and  hour.  In  morals,  however,  we  are  con- 
cerned with  the  aggregation  of  trifles,  which, 
though  they  involve  no  great  consequence 
singly,  it  is  our  fair  opinion,  must  be  duly 
regarded.  For  success  is  desired,  and  our 
reputation  is  dear  to  us.  We  are  callous,  com- 
paratively, as  to  how  we  are  classed  as  regards 
to  our  theology;  but  the  reserve  of  our  com- 
bativeness  is  called  into  requisition,  if  our  in- 
tegrity is  impugned.  We  draw  a  line  there  ; 
beyond  that  no  one  may  go.  This  marks  off 
the  sanctuary,  and  we  call  out  to  all  invaders : 
This  is  holy  ground  ! 

Of  the  distinction  between  theology  and  our 
moralness  we  are  aware.  It  is  clear.  No  one 
can  mistake  it.  What  I  believe  has  only  in- 
direct bearing  upon  what  I  do.  My  fervent 
expectation  of  salvation,  or  my  conviction  that 
there  is  none  any  more  to  come,  but  that  it 
115 


1 1 6  Theories  of  Ethics. 

has  been  spent  already,  is  a  matter  almost  of 
indifference.  For  such  considerations  are  not 
predominantly  present  in  the  conflict  between 
interest  and  conscience.  I  must  decide  my 
course  of  action.  These  two  aspects  of  reli- 
gion diverge.  By  the  one  we  choose  the  path 
to  heaven,  and  in  the  contemplation  of  that 
blissful  event  of  entering  heaven,  we  are  pre- 
occupied with  sentimental  devotion  ;  by  the 
other  we  hold  fast  to  the  conviction  that  the 
divine  need  not  be  searched  for,  that  the  work 
of  life  has  been  portioned  out  to  us  by  the 
hand  of  God.  Transcendental  religion,  such 
as  the  faith  whose  centre  of  gravity  lies  in  a 
kingdom  of  heaven,  spurns  this  earth,  and  sets 
the  heart  of  man  upon  an  everlasting  dream. 
The  religion  of  practical  ethics  asserts  that  this 
divinely-wrought  earth  has  not  yet  been  ex- 
hausted, nor  ever  will ;  that,  in  fact,  man  has 
been  set  into  life  upon  it,  in  order  that,  by  the 
innumerable  occasions  which  the  labors  and 
duties  offer,  he  might  evince  his  rationalness 
and  his  latent  capacities,  and  by  the  experi- 
ences that  come  upon  him  in  consequence  of 
earnest,  diligent  pursuit  of  his  vocation  and 
occupation,  discipline  himself,  and  grow  good 
and  wise.  The  history  of  priestly  religion  is  a 
successive  alteration  in  the  interpretation  of 
man's  life  as  a  resignation  to  the  will  of  God. 
The    history  of   ethics   per  se   repeats,  with 


Theories  of  Ethics.  117 

growing  urgency,  the  demand  of  reverence  for 
man.  Whatever  reformation  there  was  in  reli- 
gion resulted  in  shifting  the  dogma  that  God 
is  unapproachable.  But  ethics  will  have  no 
compromise.  It  is  peremptory  in  the  assertion 
that  this  earth  is  as  divine  as  heaven,  and  that 
the  duties  which  are  to  be  fulfilled,  wherever 
and  whenever  they  are  to  be  fulfilled,  call  out 
our  soul,  no  less  than  prayer  and  devotion  do. 

To  give  a  history  of  morals,  let  me  say,  does 
not  involve,  except  in  a  small  degree,  the  his- 
tory of  sectarian  religion.  For  it  is  a  fact  that 
good  morals  obtain  in  spite  of  a  bad  religion, 
and  bad  morals  in  the  face  of  a  good  religion. 
Even  nowadays  there  is  an  inexplicable  tolera- 
tion of  reprehensible  characters  by  ritualism. 
The  incongruity  between  profession  and  deed 
is  sometimes  painfully  noticeable.  A  conven- 
tional connivance  at  foibles,  nay  faults,  even 
vices,  was  and  is  practised,  and  there  was  fre- 
quently a  popular  impression  that  moral  flaws 
in  private  affairs  are  no  legitimate  obstruction 
in  church.  So  much  were  morals  and  religion 
divorced  from  each  other.  The  history  of  sects 
is  almost  similarly  distinct  from  the  history  of 
morals. 

An  unmistakable  difference  lies  in  this.  In 
the  history  of  morals  there  are  no  leaders,  and 
the  epochs  of  it  do  not  group  about  great  men. 
It  is  the  history  of  the  people,  and  deals  with 


1 1 8  Theories  of  Ethics. 

the  current  of  popular  mind.  There  is  no 
autocracy,  just  as  there  never  was  a  hierarchy, 
in  morals.  The  history  of  morality  is  demo- 
cratic. No  one  man  could  fix  opprobrium 
upon  one  kind  of  an  act  or  merit  upon 
another  kind.  This  was  done  by  the  voice  of 
the  people,  and  the  frank,  undisguised  approval 
or  disapproval  of  the  neighbor,  of  the  fellow- 
citizens,  the  honor,  the  toleration,  the  dis- 
honor of  these  declared  what  was  right  and 
what  was  wrong. 

Let  me,  however,  not  omit  to  say  that  con- 
science had  quite  a  vote  in  this  question  of 
right  and  wrong,  of  the  moral  and  the  im- 
moral. The  common  consent  was  practically 
decisive,  but  the  silent  voice  within  us,  by  its 
power  of  reproof,  is  not  to  be  left  out  of 
consideration.  If  any  one  should  suggest  here 
that  a  religious  element  then  participates  in 
practical  morality,  we  shall  have  to  remind 
that  dogmatist  of  the  fact  that  conscience 
is  not  a  matter  of  theology.  Conscience  tells 
us  what  is  righteous,  and  if  conscience  were 
legitimately  theological,  it  must  not  be  im- 
pugned. If  God  has  put  conscience  into 
man,  he  put  it  into  him  to  help  him  along,  and 
the  Zulu  is  a  brother  of  ours  in  the  faith. 
Poor,  perverted,  depraved  child  of  the  wilds, 
how  art  thou  then,  and  why  art  thou  then 
helped  along  so  pitiably,  by  this  parody  of  a 


Theories  of  Ethics.  1 1 9 

voice  of  God  within  thee,  to  fumble  and  to 
stumble  amidst  barbarities  !  I  rather  believe, 
he  would  get  on  better,  if  God  had  not  given 
him  that  conscience  at  all.  It  is  a  misfor- 
tune, — this  weird  whisper  lulling  him  into 
satisfaction  with  his  beastly  practices. 

Conscience  has  a  history,  and  did  not  come 
ready-made  out  of  the  hand  of  God.  God 
planted  not  even  the  weed  into  the  field  in 
complete  outfit  of  blade  and  little  blossom  ; 
he  constrains  the  tender  rose  to  come  out 
of  its  snug  home  in  the  soil,  to  quiver  and  to 
blush  in  the  light  and  air,  till  it  bloom.  God 
gave  the  suggestions,  and  the  earth  works  them 
out.  He  made  nothing  in  full  panoply  at 
once.  He  thought  and  the  eternities  labor  to 
bring  that  thought  out.  So  let  us  not  equip 
man  with  a  full  spiritual  uniform  at  his  birth. 
Man  was  immature,  and  is  ripening  very 
slowly.  Conscience  is  the  tardy  fruit  to  come. 
Conscience,  the  pure  voice  and  the  sovereign 
dictator  of  right,  is  the  latest  acquisition.  To 
the  eventual  attainment  of  it,  culture  and  civili- 
zation devote  their  best  results;  for  conscience 
is  the  word  of  the  spirit,  of  the  free  spirit,  which 
speaks  from  the  height  of  its  emancipated 
state.  It  has  nobility  only  when  it  is  paired 
with  wisdom  and  goodness.  Conscience  is  not 
before,  conscience  comes  after,  moral  habits. 
The  thought  I  wish  to  emphasize  is,  that  it  is  the 


1 20  Theories  of  Ethics. 

inalienable  right  and  office  of  the  people  to 
determine  morals.  In  morals  neither  priests  nor 
heroes,  except  they  teach  by  example,  have  any 
say.  The  history  of  morals  has  its  counterpart 
in  the  history  of  the  people.  I  mean  here 
practical  ethics :  actual  behavior,  conduct.  To 
these  abstract  morality,  inculcations  of  reli- 
gious principles  are  related  as  the  principles  of 
music  and  the  scale  are  related  to  the  innocent 
song  of  the  child  in  joyous  moments,  or  to  the 
magnificent  soul-inspiring  melodies  of  Beetho- 
ven and  Mozart.  Intuitive  judgments  as  to 
right  are  guesses  made  within  our  intel- 
lectual horizon.  Manly  determination  by 
conscious  decision  and  knowledge  of  actual 
merit  requires  a  broad  sweep  of  wisdom  and 
refinement.  This  process  of  moral  improve- 
ment can  be  helped  along,  but  essentially  the 
fate  of  it  depends  upon  ourselves. 

There  is  no  chance  for  arbitrariness  in  public 
opinion.  There  is  an  undercurrent  of  provi- 
dential wisdom  in  large  movements  and  in 
enduring  conditions,  and  there  is  no  more 
glorious  instance  of  the  presence  of  the  divini- 
ty on  earth  than  in  this  moulding  of  the  souls 
of  humanity.  The  destiny  of  mankind  mankind 
itself  works  out,  and  the  spirit  of  God,  ever 
since  creation,  is  in  it.  All  the  concerns  on 
earth,  weighed  down  with  profound  import, 
were  entrusted  to  mankind.  Who  will  say  that 


Theories  of  Ethics.  121 

they  are  paltry,  when  the  conviction  can  be 
brought  home  to  us  that  every  human  being  on 
earth  is  part  in  it  and  is  made  party  to  it.  The 
humble  being  is  allied  with  the  majesty  of 
Providence ;  the  weak  hands  of  man  assisting 
the  divine  work. 

So  it  is  with  the  quality  of  our  deeds.  There 
is  a  responsibility  we  bear,  that  goes  farther 
than  involving  merely  our  individual  welfare. 
We  are  responsible  to  mankind.  With  respect  to 
the  question  whether  we  have  taken  honorable 
part  in  the  activity  of  the  human  life  ;  whether 
we  have  enhanced  it  by  our  personal  con- 
duct, or  degraded  it ;  whether  we  have  deflected 
our  course  from  that  of  the  universal  one,  tJiat 
will  be  judged.  The  issue  will  be  :  How  about 
our  life?  Belief  is  impotent ;  the  deed  is  full 
of  consequences.  The  dogma  is  a  pretty  asser- 
tion, but  the  morals  is  a  prime  condition.  In- 
dividuality is  the  criterion  of  the  worth  of  our 
life,  and  the  voice  of  the  people  is  the  judge  of 
it.  Conscience  is  the  highest  synthesis  of  our 
soul-experiences,  and  the  earth  is  the  only 
place  where  the  soul  gives  evidence  of  its 
divinity.  Forego  the  dreams  of  the  future  ; 
throvv'  yourself  with  all  the  energies  you  possess 
upon  the  present.  This  earth  is  divine ;  God 
is  active  here,  and  every  day  unfolds  a  divine 
thought  and  throws  its  beauty  out  before  our 
eyes.     We  are  not,  however,  to  content  our- 


1 2  2  Theories  of  Ethics. 

selves  with  observing  these  beauties  which  God 
has  wrought,  but  rather  set  to  recognizing  that 
which  is  in  them,  viz.,  wisdom,  goodness.  We 
can  create,  in  the  form  of  deeds,  motives,  senti- 
ments, something,  than  which  nothing  is  nobler, 
nothing  sublimer  to  turn  out  of  the  workshop 
of  Providence. 

Let  us  not  rest  in  contemplation  ;  let  us  give 
up  ourselves,  so  that  we  in  turn  be  beheld,  and 
so  that  we  offer  joy  to  the  beholders.  Let  us 
be  evidences  of  the  deity.  Ours  is  the  sphere 
of  the  spirit  ;  in  that  let  us  work,  not  by  word, 
not  by  dogma,  not  by  profession,  but  by  work. 
Let  us  identify  ourselves  with  the  thought  that 
was  suggested  by  means  of  us  by  the  Creator, 
when  he  planted  the  seeds  of  purity  into  us. 
The  voice  of  Conscience,  then  a  whisper,  dis- 
torted so  long,  is  growing  melodious  and 
strong, — a  voice  of  manhood,  and  of  manliness, 
and  of  c:odliness. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE  PROGRESS   OF  KNOWLEDGE. 

What  is  the  position  of  science  toward  re- 
ligion, and  in  what  respects  has  reh'gion  any 
dealings  with  science?  The  question,  in  this 
general  form,  has  been  the  source  of  much  mis- 
understanding. I  say  question,  for  the  matter 
has  not  got  much  beyond  being  a  question.  An 
answer  is  yet  a  desideratum.  We  content  our- 
selves with  merely  broaching  the  problem. 
Our  aim  is  to  suggest  that,  beside  the  positive- 
ness  of  faith,  which  devolves  on  us  as  a  kind  of 
spiritual  inheritance,  there  is  taking  place  an 
accumulation  of  experimental  wisdom.  This 
secular  knowledge,  conventionally  foreign  to 
religion,  is  of  practical  value  as  the  aggregate 
experience  and  wisdom  of  mankind.  It  is,  for 
the  present,  sufificient,  if  we  have  brought  our- 
selves to  appreciate  that  there  is  significance 
in  the  profane  side  of  the  history  of  mankind. 
Of  what  value  this  is  with  respect  to  religion  is 
another  question.  First  it  is  requisite  to 
know  that  facts  of  universal  experience,  the 
earnings  of  ages  of  thrift,  are  didactic.  But 
they  are  more.  It  is  not  pastoral  cant  to  say, 
123 


124         ^^^^  Progress  of  Knowledge. 

a  man  is  accounted,  not  for  what  he  has,  but 
for  what  he  is.  So  it  is  with  humanity.  The 
degree  of  culture  is  gauged  by  the  intrinsic 
worth  of  it.  The  outer  life  of  mankind,  the 
manifold  activities  and  passivities  which  con- 
stitute its  eventful  career,  like  the  spokes  of  the 
wheel  to  the  axle-tree,  are  irradiations  of  a  cen- 
tral soul. 

There  is  one  feature  in  the  history  of  man- 
kind which  makes  it  different  from  the  natural 
history  of  the  world.  It  does  not  narrate 
simply  the  coming  into  and  the  going  out  of 
existence,  as  the  history  of  animal  life,  or  of 
organic  life  as  a  whole.  Mankind  does  more 
than  live  and  die,  and  there  are  more  data  in 
its  biography  than  birth  and  death.  In  human 
life  there  is  implied  a  state  of  soul.  This 
psychical  part  marks  off  the  human  life  from 
all  other  organized  existences. 

This  soul-life  suffuses  the  career  of  man  ; 
makes  him  what  he  is.  The  body  is  the  man- 
tle and  the  sword  of  the  soul  for  defence,  for 
work.  The  muscles  are  in  its  service ;  the 
fibres  and  the  delicate  nerves  convey  its  mes- 
sages to  the  world.  So  the  entire  world  is  the 
ample  garment  of  the  divine  spirit,  which,  in 
grace,  in  beauty,  in  rhythm,  conform  to  it. 
Let  us  carry  the  analogy  further.  The  history 
of  mankind  has  a  creative  and  sovereign 
thought    resident    within,  by  the    dictates   of 


The  Progress  of  Knowledge.         125 

which  the  times  of  culture  and  the  times  of 
barbarity  come.  This  is  the  seed  from  which 
all  the  fruit  ripens. 

Man  is  typical  of  Providence.  It  sometimes 
seems  as  if  the  great  and  the  small  of  this 
universe  were  patterned  after  one  guiding 
thought.  That  thought  is  the  divine  thought 
which  it  were  presumptuous  to  pretend  con- 
ceiving. But  it  is  allowed  to  say  that  every 
one  can  see  glimpses  of  it.  A  central  thought 
and  matter  rotating  about  it  is  the  term  com- 
mon to  all  parts  of  the  universe.  From  the 
blade  of  grass,  driven  out  of  the  ground  by  a 
strange  force  in  the  capsular  seed,  to  the  or- 
ganism of  the  universe,  filling  the  vast  space 
of  the  eternities, — through  all  of  these  a  pro- 
found thought  is  realizing  itself.  Each  one  is 
akin  to  the  great  world  in  this.  In  the  uni- 
verse God  works  by  quantity,  in  us  by  consid- 
erations of  quality.  Nature  is  the  symbol  of 
God's  thought  in  the  mass  ;  the  noble  man  repre- 
sents the  divine  ideal  in  the  finest  instance.  But 
the  thought  of  the  Creator  in  man  makes  him 
what  he  is.  The  idea  emanating  from  the 
exalted  spirit  is  creative  through  all  time. 

Morals  and  the  natural  sciences  confirm  each 
other.  The  virtue  in  a  man  is  a  credit  to  him 
only  in  so  far  as  it  is  evidence  that  his  charac- 
ter has  willed  it.  The  moral  man  is  the  self- 
determining   man.      The    world    in    a   similar 


126         The  Progress  of  Knowledge. 

manner  is  revealing  the  sovereign  God.  The 
conduct  of  matter,  the  Tightness  of  natural 
law,  the  peace  in  creation,  the  inscrutable  and 
yet  signally  noticeable  purpose  to  which  atom 
and  individual  subserve,  the  design  by  which 
the  singly  discordant  elements  are  harmonized, 
— are  they  not  an  impressive  confirmation  of 
the  teaching  :  The  man  of  love  and  of  under- 
standing is  blest  !  The  justness  of  the  pious 
is  like  the  justice  of  God  ;  here  again  there  is 
kinship  between  man  and  his  Creator. 

It  will  not  do  to  teach  morality  and  make  it 
a  separate  matter.  Long  enough  has  there 
been  the  promulgation  of  ethics  on  the  author- 
ity of  a  man.  We  want  corroboration,  proof. 
Whatever  is  declared  must  be  established. 
In  such  a  matter  as  what  is  best  to  do,  we  will 
not  be  satisfied  with  the  dogmatism  of  one, 
even  though  that  one  be  ever  so  genial.  For 
the  collective  wisdom  is  greater  than  his. 
Lines  of  conduct  no  single  person  can  mark 
out  for  mankind.  He  knows  that  he  is  power- 
less to  prescribe  to  gross  matter.  For  it  has 
a  mysterious  volition  of  its  own.  How  can 
he  for  the  refined  soul !  Ethics  is  the  uni- 
versal law  enforced  in  the  miniature  world  of 
man.  One  who  shall  benefit  us  and  direct 
our  energies  and  thoughts  and  feelings  into 
the  right,  and  deflect  them  from  the  wrong, 
must  have  found  the  universal  parallax  first, 
must  have  an  introspection  into  the  mechan- 


The  Progress  of  Knowledge.         127 

ism  of  God's  work,  understanding  the  mode 
of  things  and  of  souls  by  which  they  sever- 
ally and  unitedly  coordinate  themselves.  He 
must  know  more  of  the  divine  thought 
than  we  do  ;  he  must  have  gone  out  into  the 
arena  of  the  physical  life,  and  there  by  patient 
and  prolonged  observation  and  by  genial  pre- 
sentiment have  learnt  the  law  of  right  that 
God  executes  there.  For  there  He  practises 
His  ethics.  The  teacher  of  morals  for  us  must 
know  the  moral  doctrine,  as  it  were,  of  God. 
The  moralist  must  be  the  scientist.  This  shall 
be  his  title  to  teach  us  justice,  if  he  shall  have 
seen  best  the  justice  of  God.  He  shall  draw 
for  us  the  limits  of  our  rights  and  of  our 
duties,  and  their  extent,  according  to  the  mag- 
nificent prototype  which  God  gives.  Of  course, 
this  demands  a  high  grade  of  scientific  attain- 
ment, and  in  this  sense  also  it  becomes  obvi- 
ous that,  while  some  of  our  ethical  principles 
are  worthy  and  safe  guides,  we  can  expect 
that  our  ethics  will  be  illumined  and  purified 
with  every  step  of  progress  in  knowledge  and 
culture.  Civilization  is  the  thermometer  by 
which  we  can  gauge  our  standards  of  morality. 
The  soul  in  us  prescribes  our  conduct  according 
to  the  degree  of  its  emancipation.  The  intellect 
is  to  be  trusted  in  proportion  to  its  health.* 

'  Intellectual  perfection  and  moral  perfection  belong  in- 
separably together  ;  the  one  is  inconceivable  without  the 
other. — Maimonides,  Introduction  to  "  More  Nebuchim," 
and  "More  Nebuchim,"  I.,  34. 


1 28         The  Progress  of  Knowledge. 

It  is  indulgent  to  hold  a  man  pious  because 
he  does  the  best  he  is  aware  of.  But  he  should 
know  more  than  he  is  aware  of.  It  is  due  from 
him  to  achieve  progress,  and  to  be  as  intelligent 
as  is  possible  for  him  concerning  his  place  in 
life.  It  is  almost  wrong,  by  a  too  finely  drawn 
tolerance,  to  indulge  a  man  in  ignorance.  The 
duty  of  every  man  is  to  advance  beyond  the 
condition  into  which  his  birth  and  circum- 
stances have  put  him.  By  as  much  as  he 
strives  to  improve  intellectually,  by  so  much 
he  refines  himself  morally  ! 

Here  we  have  the  recommendation  to  heed 
the  sciences.  They  discipline  us  into  better 
men.  They  bring  us  acceptable  precepts,  be- 
cause they  have  gathered  them  out  of  the 
school  of  the  universe.  The  concepts  of 
morals  are  then  one  department  of  God's  law, 
as  the  concepts  of  physics  are  another  depart- 
ment of  God's  law.  Then,  as  in  the  realm  of 
matter,  God  is  present  at  the  movement  of  each 
atom  and  at  the  unfolding  of  every  organism, 
because  by  virtue  only  of  the  demonstration  of 
the  thought,  the  thinker  is  manifest,  so  in  the 
realm  of  morals,  at  every  instance  of  right- 
doing,  the  personality  of  a  man  actually  comes 
to  be. 

We  are  what  we  do,  and  we  exist  only  while 
we  act.  We  give  proof  of  ourselves  by  deed, 
and  we  proclaim  what  we  are  by  the  quality  of 


The  Progress  of  Kfzowledge.         129 

our  life.  Let  us  not  be  moral  dreamers,  but 
doers.  Let  us  not  be  content  with  senti- 
mental professions,  but  insist  on  manly  en- 
deavor. The  moralness  of  our  deeds  throws 
our  dogmatics  into  the  waste-basket.  There 
shall  not  be  one  jot  of  our  character  but  what 
shall  receive  its  due  attention.  Let  us  not,  for 
the  sake  of  idle  comfort,  fondle  ourselves  into 
the  illusion  that,  having  done  what  is  pre- 
scribed and  guarded  ourselves  against  infrin- 
ging upon  the  prohibited,  we  are  righteous. 
According  to  the  conventional  judgment,  we 
may  be  acceptable.  But  by  the  dignity  of  our 
humanity,  we  are  not  ennobled  until  we  have 
achieved  the  best.  We  are  destined  to  attain 
to  a  higher  individuality.  We  must  not  stop. 
God  never  ceases  producing,  and  we  might,  to 
our  benefit,  imitate  the  divine  assiduity.  It 
looks  almost  as  if  God  were  Infinite  Ambition, 
creating  every  moment  new  beauties  which 
he  allows  to  fade,  that  He  might  create  new 
and  more  glorious  beauties.  From  that  noble 
yearning  let  us  learn.  The  present  is  a  precious 
gift,  but  the  future,  which  Providence  hides 
from  us,  is  more  precious.  So  God,  so  the 
world,  so  the  wisdom  of  mankind,  teach  the 
insatiable,  eternal  ambition  after  the  nobler, 
the  purer,  the  more  divine-like. 

The   history  of   art   runs  parallel   with  the 
history  of  civilization.     Knowing  what  a  man 


1 30         The  Progress  of  Knowledge. 

calls  beautiful,  we  know  much  about  him.  We 
can  make  a  guess  as  to  what  is  his  character. 
Tell  us  of  the  favorite  arts  of  a  people,  and 
you  have  at  once  told  us  of  its  life,  of  its 
political,  its  domestic,  its  religious  matters. 
For  on  the  surface  of  a  man's  conduct  lies  his 
character,  and  through  the  diversified  activi- 
ties of  a  nation  we  can  trace  its  ideal. 

We  need  not  be  told  what  dogmas  a  sect 
teaches,  so  long  as  we  can  see  some  of  its 
churches.  The  sombre  walls,  the  melancholy 
atmosphere,  in  between  the  columns,  and  the 
dull  light,  listlessly  hovering  about  the  darkened 
windows,  tell  the  catechism.  Lead  me  else- 
where, where  the  sun  has  free  scope  and 
the  light  glows  white,  and  the  fresh  air  is 
charged  with  perfume.  Does  it  require  a  pro- 
phetic gift  to  guess  what  doctrines  obtain 
amid  such  cheer?  The  castles,  skirting  the 
borders,  look  down  into  the  valleys  from  the 
tops  of  well-defended  mountains,  like  so  many 
barons  set  to  lording  over  abject  vassals,  em- 
blems of  oppression  !  The  hamlets  throughout 
our  land,  simple  and  unadorned,  tell  by  their 
artlessness  that  the  time  has  come  for  unpre- 
tentious, conscious  freedom.  The  Buddhists 
burrow  into  the  mountains  of  granite  and  hol- 
low out  their  temple,  leaving  columns,  like 
reeds,  to  hold  the  massive  cupola  above,  and 
thus  unwittingly  tell  us  all  we  need  to  know 


The  Progress  of  Knowledge.        1 3 1 

about  them.  We  try  to  enter  into  God,  they 
say  thus  symbolically,  and  be  swallowed  up  in 
the  maw  of  eternal  mystery.  There  is  not  a 
spire  nor  steeple  but  what  is  emblematic.  The 
very  style  in  which  our  city-halls,  our  houses 
of  legislature,  are  built,  are  records  of  the 
history  of  the  emancipation  of  the  people  and 
their  present  republicanism.  So  the  mind,  so 
the  heart,  so  our  most  earnest  concerns,  declare 
themselves.     The  very  stones  speak. 

All  this  is  involuntary  and  spontaneous.  We 
can  no  more  prevent  this  mute  revelation  of 
the  soul  of  mankind,  than  we  can  close  up  the 
chinks  in  the  wall  of  the  sky  to  keep  out  the 
light.  The  world  has  its  own  method,  and  per- 
sists in  it.  There  is  not  a  thought,  however 
much  you  may  keep  it  secret,  but  will  be  known, 
and  a  time  may  come  when  in  the  very  market- 
places this  thought  will  be  heard.  Let  it  but 
have  enlisted  a  number  of  adherents  who  have 
grouped  their  lives  around  it,  and  this  mental 
encampment  will  be  visible  to  the  world. 
They  cannot  conceal  it.  Every  line  of  the 
face  will  reveal  it. 

We  ought  to  learn  more  of  this  fact — how 
public  we  are.  Providence  is  intolerant  of 
masks,  tears  them  off,  and  brings  out  the  con- 
tour of  our  character  into  undeceiving  relief. 
This  is  the  art  of  Providence.' 

Every   period    is  mirrored.      We  need   not 

'  Compare  our  remarks  on  page  63. 


132         The  Progress  of  K7iowledge. 

delve  into  abstruse  study  for  that.  A  matter- 
of-fact  observation  of  things  at  hand  will  do. 
It  will  then  appear  as  if  out  of  the  centre  of  the 
universe  a  spirit  were  pushing,  radiating  out- 
ward into  every  point ;  as  if  all  things  were  in- 
fused with  it.  The  multitudinous  experiences, 
wants,  aspirations,  are  the  folds  of  that  sover- 
eign thought.  The  world  is  a  statue  and  there 
is  a  soul  in  it ;  this  soul  is  swelling  the  muscles 
and  quickening  the  blood,  and  gives  a  sparkle 
to  the  eyes,  and  presses  out  the  tears,  and  puts 
a  quiver  on  the  lips.  That  soul  lives  in  every 
fibre. 

Let  us  have  a  broader  view  of  Providence. 
The  world  is  God's.  His  thought  is  at  work 
everywhere  ;  all  things  reveal  it.  Let  us  not 
speak  of  religion  as  if  it  were  nothing  but 
a  matter  of  belief,  and  solely  stern,  legal 
practice.  It  is  belief,  it  is  practice  ;  but  it  is 
more.  Religion  is  the  greatest  of  arts.  Re- 
ligion is  another  word  for  how  much  of  the 
beautiful  there  is  in  the  world  we  have  taken 
into  ourselves  and  made  it  our  own.  I  might 
be  persuaded  to  dogmatize.  He  who  sees  ele- 
ments of  beauty  everywhere  is  nearest  to  God. 
At  any  rate  he  is  likely  to  appreciate  best 
what  God  has  done  and  is  doing  in  this  world. 
The  divine  is  superlatively  beautiful.  What- 
ever charms  by  the  appeals  of  melody,  by  the 
bewitching  graces  of  proportion,  be  it  in  the 


The  Progress  of  Knowledge.         133 

massive  structures  of  terrestrial  things,  be  it 
in  the  delicate  mold  of  face  or  flower,  be  it  in 
the  sweet  inspiration  of  love,  or  in  the  glory 
of  thought,  wherever  it  be,  that  partakes 
of  divinity  and  has  a  claim  on  our  religious 
life.'  Art  and  the  culture  of  art  are  parts  of 
religious  duty.  We  must  promote  our  talents 
in  the  direction  of  the  beautiful,  that  thus  we 
might  by  refinement  of  ourselves  come  to  be 
more  in  sympathy  with  that  eternally  perfect- 
ing work  of  art  which  God  has  set  upon  the 
canvas  of  finite  existence. 

The  first  help  in  pious  devotion  was  the  art 
of  dancing.  The  future  shall  see  a  religion  in 
which  not  the  gross  and  sensual  delectation, 
but  all  the  arts,  the  delicious,  spiritual  apti- 
tudes of  our  being,  shall  make  for  us  an  harmo- 
nious spirituality.  They  will  be  a  source  of 
beatitude,  and  shall  be  creative  for  us  of  a 
rounded  and  peaceful  and  unified  life. 

'  Maimonides  ("  More  Nebuchim,"  II.,  4)  speaks  of  assthet- 
ico-somatic  acts,  which  he  terms  as  equivalent  to  acts  of  crea- 
tion. 


CHAPTER  X. 

THE  HISTORY  OF  JUDAISM. 

The  distinctive  feature  which  marks  off  the 
history  of  Judaism  from  the  history  of  any 
other  reh'gion,  leaving  out  of  view  considera- 
tion of  the  intrinsic  character,  is  that  it  needs 
universal  history  to  make  a  proper  presenta- 
tion of  it  possible.  The  aid  of  universal  his- 
tory is  necessary  as  a  complement  to  round 
off  the  chapters  of  Jewish  experience.  It 
offers  also  an  explanation  of  the  contents 
of  Jewish  mental  life.  Without  it  the  pecu- 
liarly religious  habit  of  the  Jewish  people 
would  lose  significance.  The  Jewish  people, 
from  the  time  that  their  national  solidarity  was 
disintegrated,  have  had  dealings  with  the  world 
at  large.  Since  the  Diaspora  their  experiences 
are  a  continuous  cycle  of  passivity.  With  the 
disruption  of  the  Jewish  commonwealth  and 
with  the  departure  from  Palestine,  the  thread 
of  Jewish  history  began  to  seize  hold  of  rela- 
tion to  many  individual  histories.  Though  in 
some  countries  the  infusion  by  them  had  not 
effected  much,  the  retroaction  upon  the  Jews 
themselves  of  the  new  circumstances,  which 
134 


The  History  of  yudaism.  135 

conditioned  their  industrial  and  mental  activi- 
ties and  their  religious  practices,  was  in  an 
important  degree  appreciable. 

It  is  easy  to  understand  that  the  exile  and 
the  dispersion  were  events  which  the  Jews  in 
the  course  of  years  came  to  estimate  in  a 
melancholy  manner.  By  the  gradually  more 
saddening  conditions  of  life  they  were  led  to 
feel  that  while  their  comfort  rested  solely  in 
contemplation  and  soul-sanctification,  the  pros- 
perity of  their  households  and  the  success  in 
their  occupations  were  exasperatingly  growing 
into  dependence  upon  the  nations  and  the 
arbitrary  boon  or  withdrawal  of  tolerance  by 
those  into  whose  hands  their  fate  had  thrown 
them.  Politically  the  history  of  the  Jews  dur- 
ing the  Talmudic,  Gaonic,  and  Rabbinic  period 
is  to  a  large  degree  determined  by  the  chapters 
of  contemporaneous  history  of  Asia,  Africa, 
and  Europe.  I  need  not  cite  instances.  From 
the  first  kings  of  the  Goths,  who  as  Gratz '  has 
it,  "  enacted  the  first  act  of  that  frightful 
drama,  which  finds  its  climax  in  the  terrible 
decrees  of  Ferdinand  and  of  Manuel  of  Portu- 
gal," until  this  century,  the  life  of  the  Jews 
is  a  struggle  such  as  records  of  history  at  large 
have  no  duplicate  of.  It  is  a  phenomenon  by 
itself. 

'  "  Die  westgothische  Gesetzgebung  in  Betreff  der  Juden  " 
(Jahresbericht  d.  jiid.  theolog.  Seminars),  Breslau,  1858,  p.  2. 


136  The  History  of  Judaism. 

We  have  no  mention  to  make  here  of  the 
exceptional  fortitude  with  which  the  Jews 
bore  oppressions.  Nor  is  it  our  intention  to 
say  one  word  of  praise  for  the  steadfastness 
in  faith  nor  for  the  loyal  persistence  in  the 
course  of  law-abiding  peacefulness.  Knowing 
the  great  provocation,  it  is  both  affecting  and 
a  testimony  to  religious  heroism,  whose  lustre 
will  not  tarnish.  I  have  in  view  the  fact  that 
to  round  off  the  external  aspect  of  Judaism, 
we  are  constrained  to  keep  in  view  universal 
history.  We  find  in  this  fact  an  instance  of  that 
staunch  morality,  of  which  we  spoke  before. 
We  find,  finally,  in  this  an  exemplification  of 
a  moral  habit  of  life.  The  Jewish  people 
were  not  ascetic  in  their  reticence  and  seclu- 
sion, not  sentimentally  passive,  because  of  a 
pious  withdrawal  from  contact  with  the  world, 
but  aggressively  and  defensively  committed 
to  active  participation  in  the  duties  and  task  of 
the  passing  hours.  I  wish  here,  by  way  of 
parenthesis,  to  remark  that  I  am  speaking  of 
the  Jewish  people  mainly  as  a  religious  com- 
munity, from  which,  for  the  purposes  in  hand, 
I  divorce  its  racial  feature.  When  I  refer  to 
the  history  of  the  Jewish  people  I  mean  that 
significance  attaches  to  that  history  only  in  so 
far  as  it  is  the  mirror  of  the  Jewish  religion  and 
of  the  Jewish  conception  of  morality.  Of  the 
consideration  concerning  the  superior  vitality  of 


The  History  of  yudaism.  137 

this  race  among  more  powerful  races,  despite 
the  malevolence  and  repression  on  the  part  of 
the  domineering  nations,  and  the  disparity  of 
numbers  ;  of  a  strange  and  perplexing  calmness 
and  unwavering  spirit  of  solidarity  in  that  per- 
secuted little  tribe  ;  of  this  special,  ethnological 
matter,  except  in  so  far  as  it  is  indicative  of 
moral  strength,  I  do  not  wish  to  speak  here. 

We  must  content  ourselves  with  merely  as- 
serting that  the  cause  of  this  racial  healthful- 
ness  were  solid  faith  and  solid  ethics.  These 
had  inured  themselves  into  the  Jewish  people, 
and  had  turned  organic.  Religion,  having  be- 
come constitutional,  proved  a  source  of  vigor, 
upon  which  it  was  safe  to  draw  for  resources  in 
troublesome  and  trying  times.  And  I  refer  to 
that  constituent  of  history,  which  in  the  form  of 
persecution,  plied  restlessly  against  this  strong- 
hold, if  not  with  the  purpose  of  breaking  it 
down,  at  least  to  vent  its  spleen  and  to  have 
gratification  in  the  aggressive  and  destructive 
effort  against  it. 

The  waves  roll  and  heave  and  swell  in  the  open 
sea ;  they  pursue  their  wild  sport,  coming  in 
with  the  tide ;  but  I  have  noticed  them  often, 
as  they  come  near  to  the  shore,  they  slacken, 
and  while  tossing  their  white  manes,  and 
throwing  themselves  down  in  a  shower  of 
spluttering  foam,  they  seem  all  at  once  to  feel 
they  are  approaching  the  unmoved  rock,  and  at 


138  The  History  of  yudaisrn. 

its  feet  they  grow  quiet  and  smoother!  out  into 
calm  undulations.  I  felt  tempted  to  carry  out 
the  analogy,  and  I  thought  in  the  presence  of 
the  royal  conduct  of  a  pious  people,  steadfast- 
ly loyal  to  their  faith, — passions  and  bigotry 
would  abate.  But  the  events  teach  a  differ- 
ent lesson.  The  analogy  between  matter  and 
spirit  does  not  hold.  The  unemancipated,  fa- 
talistic conduct  of  nature  has  a  way  for  peace- 
fulness,  to  which  the  spirit  cannot  easily  attain, 
despite  its  transcendent  nobility. 

Providence  seems  to  have  a  twofold  kind  of 
government.  The  realms  of  the  material  and 
of  the  spiritual  are  distinct.  But,  in  reality,  be 
it  here  remarked,  the  two,  if  we  follow  them  to 
their  ultimates,  fllow  into  each  other.  If  we 
distinguish  them  as  separate  agents,  executing 
the  design  of  Providence,  in  the  form  of  cul- 
ture, and  of  physical  development,  with  a  two- 
fold source,  and  continually  interacting,  we 
shall  at  some  periods  in  the  history  of  the 
world  find  conflicts,  which  to  our  circumscribed 
vision  appear  hindering  and  harmful.  To  speak 
less  abstrusely,  let  me  say  that  history  is  com- 
plicated and  it  is  not  always  possible  for  us 
to  see  the  drift  of  it.  History  is,  properly, 
not  merely  a  narrative  of  personal  and  of 
national  events,  but  embraces  the  entire  range 
of  terrestrial  action.  I  wish  to  say  concerning 
this  all-encompassing  experience  of  humanity, 


The  History  of  yiidaism.  139 

that,  while  we  are  confident  it  is  tending  to- 
ward an  aim,  which  it  is  bound  to  attain,  and 
for  which  we  most  frequently  have  guaranty^ 
yet  sometimes  we  lack  sufficient  discretion  to 
reconcile  us  to  occurrences  which  seem  foreign, 
nay,  hostile,  to  the  providential  plan. 

In  the  special  case  I  have  now  in  hand,  the 
hostility  to  Judaism,  endless  apparently  as  it 
undoubtedly  must  have  appeared  to  the  poor, 
down-trodden  Jew  of  the  Middle  Ages,  coupled 
with  the  uselessness  of  this  hostility,  and  its 
failure  to  move  the  Jew  one  jot  from  his 
conviction  and  practice,  seem,  at  least,  a  vain 
expenditure  of  energy.  And  the  philosopher 
of  history,  who  sees  in  the  phenomena  of 
history  unmistakable  evidence  of  spiritual 
dynamics,  approaches  this  chapter  of  Jewish 
history  with  much  hesitation.  For  here,  pre- 
sumably from  their  inception,  the  Jewish  people, 
endowed  with  exceptional  tenacity,  provoke 
antagonism.  But  there  is  no  appreciable  re- 
turn for  the  prolonged  outlay  of  moral  ener- 
gy. The  contest  between  Judaism  and  the 
world  results  in  a  splintering  strength,  and 
accomplishes  nothing.  No  material  benefit  ac- 
crues to  the  Jewish  people  from  their  fortitude 
and  their  noble  sentimentality,  nor  to  the  na- 
tions of  Asia  and  of  Europe  for  the  assertion  of 
authority  over  them,  and  for  the  indulgence  of 
passion  against  them. 


140  The  History  of  yudaism. 

The  remarkable  fidelity  of  the  Jews  to  Juda- 
ism has  redounded  certainly,  in  a  certain  degree, 
to  the  greater  illumination  of  both  Jews  and 
non-Jews.  But  Providence  does  not  spend  her 
energies  upon  the  paltry  business  of  awarding 
praise.  She  desires  tangible  acquisitions  and 
a  material  furtherance  of  the  cause  of  truth 
and  the  dissemination  of  it.  This  shall  con- 
duce ultimately  to  the  transformation  of  the 
knowledge  of  truth  into  the  faculty  for  the  do- 
ing of  it  by  men.  Now,  the  question  is,  in 
what  respect  has  Judaism  itself  grown  better 
by  reason  of  its  struggles,  and  to  what  purpose 
for  the  aggregate  interests  of  mankind  has 
Providence  subjected  the  people  of  Israel  to 
buffets  and  hardships  ? 

In  one  way  we  can  see  a  justification  of  the 
eventful  career  of  the  Jews,  because,  though 
it  induced  the  venom  of  bigoted  oppression, 
it  had  eventually  disciplinary  value  for  the 
nations  of  Europe.  But  what  justification 
of  it  can  we  cite,  looking  at  this  from  the  Jew- 
ish side  ?  The  time  is  now  proper  to  ask  this 
question.  We  are  far  enough  removed  from 
the  scene  to  presume  to  behold  it  in  a  tout 
ensemble.  We  ask :  What  was  the  benefit  to 
Judaism  in  all  this?  It  cannot  be  that  the 
handful  of  Jews  alone  were  regarded.  That 
could  have  been  done  with  less  melancholy 
means  and  with    smaller   outlay.      Nor    is    it 


The  History  of  jfudaism.  141 

clear,  it  must  be  admitted,  that  the  regenera- 
tion of  the  Jews  was  not  as  illustrious  as  the 
unusual  expenditure  of  effort  would  justify 
one  to  expect.  Besides,  large  events  and  a 
prolonged  tendency  in  events,  we  can  safely 
say,  deal  not  with  individuals,  nor  with  com- 
munities, but  with  causes  and  purposes  which 
transcend  single  and  local  interests,  Jewish  his- 
tory, embracing  the  whole  vista  almost  of  the 
history  of  mankind,  must  bear  a  large  signifi- 
cance and  explain  a  sweeping  truth. 

The  kernel  of  Jewish  history  is  Judaism. 
This  is  admitted.  Whatever  prominence  the 
Jewish  people  has  enjoyed  (and  that  prominence 
is  growing  to-day)  attaches  to  it  solely  because 
of  the  religious  idea,  of  which  it  is  the  exponent. 
The  history  of  the  Jewish  people  proves  that 
it  has  significance  because  of  its  religion. 
Says  Dr.  Wise  :  "  If  you  ask  me  why  the  Jews 
are  forever  the  target  of  the  petulant  and  bar- 
barous assassins  of  human  happiness,  I  must 
answer  with  the  question,  why  is  genius,  why 
are  the  representatives  of  genius,  the  target  of 
the  same  assassins?  The  Jew  is  the  represen- 
tative of  eternal  and  the  loftiest  genius.  Are 
we  not  a  century  in  advance  of  the  world  in 
our  religious  conceptions,  in  our  charitable 
practices  and  in  our  fraternal  oneness?  .  .  . 
Are  we  not  the  perpetual  protestation  against 
the  world's  superstitions  and  atheism  ?     Are  we 


142  TJie  History  of  yudaism. 

not  the  loudest  voice  crying  in  the  wilderness 
for  toleration,  humanity,  and  the  unity  of  man- 
kind on  the  moral  and  intellectual  basis?"  ' 
It  will  then  not  be  presumptuous  to  say  that 
the  religious  idea  was  the  centre  of  the  history 
of  the  Jews.  Only  in  this  sense  the  mission  of 
the  Jews  can  be  understood.  The  Jews  must 
give  v/ay  to  Judaism." 

Now  we  ask  further,  seeing  that  Judaism  is 
the  paramount  concern,  and  the  Jews,  as  it  were, 
merely  the  incidentalness  of  it,  in  what  respect 
did  its  history  accrue  beneficially  to  Judaism? 
This  brings  us  to  the  head  of  our  problem  and 
suggests  superficially  as  an  answer,  an  alterna- 
tive. We  must  determine  what  is  the  value  of 
experience  in  matters  of  religion.  But  we 
must  ascertain  and  determine  whether  religious 
teachings  need  experience  at  all  to  corroborate 
them.  It  may  be  that  we  are  desirous  to  ob- 
tain for  our  religious  conception  such  a  degree 
of  positiveness  that  it  should  be  as  compelling 

'  "Genius  in  History  and  History  of  Genius",  American 
Israelite,  March  17,  1882. 

*  Dr.  Ludwig  Philippson  says:  "Not  to  Judaism,  as  it 
has  been  until  now,  will  mankind  finally  attain,  but  to  the 
religious  idea,  as  it  has  been  carried  along  by  Judaism  un- 
changed through  all  its  phases,  and  partially  brought  to  the 
world  by  Christianity  and  Mohammedanism."  And  :  "  He  is 
a  Jew,  who  acknowleiiges  the  one,  eternal  God,  not  as  a  Jew 
in  specie,  but  as  devotee  of  the  religious  idea,  which  is  con- 
tained in  Judaism."  ("  Die  Entwickelung  der  religiosen  Idee," 
Leipzig,  1874,  p.  179.) 


Ihe  History  of  yiidaism.  143 

as  an  axiom.  Of  course  that  would  be  an  ex- 
alted and  as  yet  an  uncommon  quality  of  re- 
ligion. But  it  is  certainly  desirable  that  to 
have  an  implicit  conviction  in  the  principles  of 
Judaism  they  should  have  applicative  certainty. 
Toward  such  a  conception  of  Judaism  experi- 
ence stands  in  the  same  manner  as  toward  all 
intuitions.  They  are  true  and  were  considered 
to  be  true,  and  experimental  help  does  not  in 
an  essential  way  enhance  their  validity.  It  did 
not  require  an  exceptional  method  to  bring 
home  the  fact  that  the  multiplication  table  can 
be  relied  on.  The  rationalist  knows  that  such 
truths  come  spontaneously  and  are  transfused 
with  the  blood,  and  are  gotten  possession  of 
and  transmitted  in  an  organic  way. 

All  this  points  one  way.  Jewish  history  is 
an  experiment,  as  the  life  of  each  and  every 
one  is  an  experiment,  that  is,  a  trial  of  what 
his    theory  of   life  is  worth.'     There    is   thus 

'  This  larger  meaning  of  individual  lives  and  of  their 
diversity  is  admirably  defended  by  John  Stuart  Mill  :  "As 
it  is  useful  that  while  mankind  are  imperfect  there  should 
be  different  opinions,  so  it  is  that  there  should  be  different  ex- 
periments of  living.  .  .  .  Where,  not  the  person's  own  charac- 
ter, but  the  traditions  or  customs  of  other  people  are  the  rule 
of  conduct,  there  is  wanting  one  of  the  principal  ingredients 
of  human  happiness,  and  quite  the  chief  ingredients  of  indi- 
vidual and  social  progress  "  ("  On  Liberty,"  People's  Edition, 
London,  p.  33).  I  add  that,  not  only  should  this  individua- 
lization be  furthered  by  govermental  aid,  but  that,  such  is 
the  benefit  which  accrues  to  mankind  from  these  multifari- 


144  ^^^  History  of  yiidaisiii. 

in  this  world  an  enactment  of  myriads  of 
such  trials  of  theories.  The  private  life  is 
never  so  private,  but  what  the  content  of  it 
becomes  eventually  public  property.  Provi- 
dence generously  leaves  the  trivialities  to  us 
and  respects  our  little  secrets.  But  our 
character,  which  unifies  these  trivialities  and 
systematizes  our  career,  is  very  important. 
For  that  is  one  of  the  delicate  experiments 
Providence  made  in  the  laboratory  of  the  spirit. 
Some  of  these  are  worthless,  and  she  rejects 
them.  Some  of  them,  very  promising  at  the 
start,  she  has  the  grief  to  see  fail  and  end  in 
disaster.  Over  these  she  weeps.  But  some  are 
precious  to  her.  For  they  boil  or  cool  at  the 
proper  temperature, — expand  and  contract, 
liquefy  and  grow  solid,  under  given  conditions. 
Over  these  she  rejoices.  Now,  contemplating 
the  history  of  the  Jewish  people,  its  varying 
fortunes,  its  sorrows,  its  joys,  its  degradation 
and  its  glory,  is  it  not  an  experiment,  an  ex- 
periment in  religion  ?  Jewish  history  is  a  test 
of  the  Jewish  religion,  and  the  practice  shows 
the  worth  of  the  theory  of  Judaism. 

Let  us  claim  for  Jewish  history  no  miracu- 
lous intervention.'     I  am  willing  to  put  it  on 

ous  experiments,  that  the  complexity  of  human  society,  in 
economics  and  in  religion,  is  explicable  mainly  on  the  lines  of 
this  thought. 

'  "  In  this  grand  demolition  of  mythical  religion,  the  noise 


The  History  of  yjidaisni.  145 

par  with  universal  history.  The  survival  of 
the  Jewish  people  is  no  wonder,  but  the  natu- 
ral consequence  of  the  moral  life  of  the  Jews. 
The  fidelity  of  the  Jew  to  his  faith,  and  his 
fortitude  are  natural  complements  of  clear 
religiousness.  The  genial  gifts  of  Jewish  minds, 
and  the  mobility  of  his  sentiments,  like  the 
fine  sand  thrown  on  the  plate,  that  shivers  and 
dances  at  the  touch  of  the  bow,  are  states  of  a 
soul  which  has  the  conviction  of  the  blood- 
relationship  between  man  and  man,  and  of  the 
kinship  of  man  and  the  entire  universe.  This 
is  the  reason  why  Jewish  history  is  universal, 
because  the  Jewish  faith  teaches  the  brother- 
hood of  all  men  in  their  various  walks  of  life, 
and  a  theory  of  living  which  so  far  has  stood 
the  test  best. 

of  which  fills  our  age,  Judaism,  such  as  the  centuries  have 
made  it,  is  the  religion  which  has  had  the  least  to  suffer  and 
the  least  to  fear,  for  its  miracles  and  practices  constitute  no 
integral  and  essential  part,  so  that,  consequently,  it  does  not 
crumble  with  them."  J.  Darmsteter,  "Die  Philosophie  der 
Geschichte  des  judischen  Volkes,"  deutsch  von  J.  Singer, 
Wien,  1884,  p.  37.  Engl,  trans,  in  Hebrew  Review,  vol.  II., 
1881-82,  p.  76. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

FOREIGN  ELEMENTS    IN  JUDAISM. 

An  important  chapter  in  the  history  of 
foreign  influence  upon  Judaism  is  the  period 
immediately  after  the  origin  of  Christianity.  It 
seemed  as  if  the  Jewish  population  in  Palestine 
was  disintegrating  into  many  sects,  the  like 
of  which  had  never  been  before  among  the  Jew- 
ish people.  It  was  a  time  of  intoxication,  in 
the  midst  of  great  mental  activity.  Metaphys- 
ical doctrines,  concealed  beneath  a  mass  of 
mysticism,  grew  into  a  system  of  dogmatics, 
which  fairly  throttled  the  rational  spirit  of 
Judaism.  Weird  and  most  unwarrantable 
speculations  acquired  unusual  potency  and 
power.  For  a  time  it  seemed  as  if  the  last 
few  years  of  Rabbinic  influence  would  be 
splintered  in  useless  apologetics.  There  was 
serious  work  to  be  done  before  the  land  was 
to  be  abandoned,  and  before  the  props  were 
to  be  knocked  off  forever  from  beneath  the 
tottering  and  sapless  hierarchy.  There  was 
peremptory  need  for  provision  against  the  bad 
times  coming.  But  there  was  no  possibility  of 
a  unified  effort. 

146 


Foreign  Elements  hi  yudaism.     i^^j 

It  is  a  phenomenon  in  the  history  of  mind 
that  mysticism  has  a  fatal  habit  of  obtruding 
itself  upon  the  scene  of  legitimate  thought  just 
then,  when  most  hope  obtains  in  rationalism, 
and  when  the  acquisition  of  clear  principles  is 
just  about  bearing  fruit.  So  also  now,  the 
Rabbis  had  just  begun  teaching  a  conception 
of  Judaism  freed  from  the  legalism  of  Moses 
and  from  its  hierarchical  character.  But  their 
much  promising  rationalism  was  checked  by 
the  appearance  of  Gnostic  sects. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  explain  the  presence 
of  Gnosticism  at  this  time.  This  would  lead 
to  a  consideration  of  the  origin  of  Christianity, 
in  which  it  might  become  evident  that  Gnos- 
ticism is  a  part  only  of  the  intellectual  effort 
which  characterizes  the  entire  period.  The 
origin  of  Christianity  is  traceable  to  asceti- 
cism, which  obtained  not  only  in  Palestine, 
but  through  a  stretch  of  Asiatic  provinces, 
even  in  Iran  and  the  peninsula  of  India. 

We  have  to  deal  here  mainly  with  the  fact 
that  there  were  Gnostic  sects  in  Palestine,  and 
that  these  imported  certain  teachings  and  views 
into  Judaism.  Although  they  did  not  exert  a 
lasting  influence  upon  traditional  or  Rabbinic 
Judaism,  they  have  at  any  rate  left  noticeable 
traces  of  a  struggle  between  them  and  the 
teaching  of  the  Talmud. 

How    they  succeeded  in  gaining  adherents 


148      Foreign  Elevients  in  yiidaism. 

amongst  the  Jews  still  admits  of  some  explana- 
tion. Gnosticism  is  mainly  a  sentimentality, 
such  as  perhaps  in  the  main  all  theosophies  are. 
Properly  speaking,  Gnosticism  is  the  knowl- 
edge, the  Gnosis,  and  considering  its  source, 
it  is  a  Greek  importation.  It  is  a  preten- 
sion to  a  metaphysical  speculation  concern- 
ing God  and  the  origin  of  light,  in  which  the 
Deity  resides.  Apparently  then  it  is  a  phil- 
osophy.' But  there  is  coupled  with  this  ab- 
stract study  a  certain  exaltation,  and  this  takes 
it  at  once  out  of  the  class  of  mental  effort,  and 
puts  it  amongst  the  other  kindred  ecstasies, 
forfeiting  along  with  its  rationalism  also  its 
title  to  being  a  legitimate  science. 

Gnosticism  is  avowedly  the  vitiation  of 
Hellenistic  philosophy,  and  it  is  analogous 
to  theosophic  movements  that  are  traceable 
to  Asiatic,  or  to  speak  more  exactly,  to 
Hindu  and  to  Buddhistic  schools  of  religious 
thought.  Mysticism  is  congenite,  and  though 
there  are  different  sources  for  it,  in  the  end 
these  produce  the  same  typical  Gnostic  and 

'  On  p.  3,  note  2,  we  cited  the  Talmudic  statement  that  the 
aboriginal  man  was  a  ''  Min."  Gratz  thinks,  Min  means  a 
Gnostic.  Whether  such  high  antiquity  can  be  claimed  for 
Gnosticism  is  still  a  question.  We  presume  that  the  Talmud 
means  simply  to  say  that  man  has  a  natural  liking  for  the 
mysterious.  See,  however,  A.  H.  Goldfahn  in  "  Ueber  den 
Ursprung  u.  d.  Bedeutung  des  Ausdruckes  'Min,'  "  Frankel's,. 
"  Monatsschrift,"  Jahrg.  1870,  pp.  163-177. 


Foreign  Elements  hi  yiidaism.     149 

mystic  sublimation  above  the  inscrutable  final- 
ities, which  hamper  our  philosophy  and  re- 
ligion. It  is  a  phenomenon,  common  to  all 
the  chapters  of  rationalism,  that  the  natural 
restrictions  to  our  rationalism  are  set  at  some 
time  popularly  at  naught  by  a  certain  icono- 
clasm  of  our  impulsive  and  impatient  intellect- 
ual craving.  This  bold  disregard  brings  the 
exalted  sentiments  into  regions  in  which  logic 
and  the  trusted  guides  of  reason  are  impotent 
and  the  mind  is  free  to  wander  without  being 
held  to  account.  The  time  of  Jesus  is  espe- 
cially fruitful  of  such  ecstatic  effort.  Not 
only  the  much  decried  Simon  Magus,  not 
merely  John  the  Baptist,  the  brooding  Essene, 
but  even  Jesus  himself  is  suspected.  His 
occasional  mysterious  declarations,  e.g.  con- 
cerning his  intimate  relations  to  his  Father, 
and  his  images  of  a  future  existence,  seem  not 
to  conceal  entirely  an  inclination  towards 
Gnosticism.'  Not  to  speak  of  the  Christian 
sects  of  the  Nazarites  and  Ebionites,  we  can  go 
farther  into  Asia  to  discover  analogous  theo- 
sophic  movements.  We  refer  merely  cursorily 
to  the  Alexandrian  school  of  Neoplatonism, 
which  is  a  mixture  of  Greek  idealism,  of  Hag- 
gadic  literalism,  and  of  Gnostic  imagery.  Per- 
sian dualism,  also,  while  dealing  with  the  ulti- 
mate causes  of   good    and   evil,  and    holding 

'  Gratz,  "  Gnosticismus  unci  Judenthum,"  page  3. 


1 50      Foreign  Elements  in  ytidaism. 

them  to  be  real  entities,  is  still  a  kind  of  Gnos- 
ticism. We  shall  find  this  to  be  more  justified 
than  would  at  first  seem  warrantable. 

But  the  threads  of  mystic  influence  can  be 
pursued  farther,  and  we  shall  not  go  amiss  if 
from  Semitic  Judaism  we  go  in  our  investiga- 
tion to  Aryan  Buddhism,  for  there  has  been 
more  of  miscegenation  in  religion  than  is  ap- 
parent. In  the  history  of  religion  there  has 
been  crossing  of  species,  and  the  mongrel  breed 
has,  in  the  course  of  time,  so  assimilated  itself 
to  the  stronger  of  its  parents,  that  identifica- 
tion of  the  foreign  co-parents  is  not  easy. 
The  assertion  that  an  influence  was  exerted  by 
Buddhistic  esoterism  upon  the  early  Jewish 
Christian  Church  is  not  easily  disposed  of.  As 
was  said  above,  our  business  at  hand  is  not  to 
offer  a  theory  of  the  origin  of  Christianity.  We 
merely  wish  to  be  allowed  to  believe  that  in 
the  Gnostic  movement  of  that  time  elements 
are  recognizable  which  we  are  bound  to  call 
Buddhistic.  We  do  not  intend  to  maintain  that 
these  elements  which  we  term  Buddhistic  were, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  imported  bodily  from  the 
Hindu  sects  either  by  Pundits  who  might  have 
come  to  Jerusalem,  or  by  Jewish  travellers, 
who,  on  returning  from  their  extensive  and  en- 
terprising journeys  in  the  East,  brought  reports 
of  such  teachings  into  the  Talmudic  schools. 
Such  a  statement  would  be  extravagant  and 


Foreign  Elements  in  yudaism.     1 5 1 

would  require  corroboration.'  But  it  is  one  thing 
to  refuse  believing  actual  contact  between  India 
and  Palestine,  and  another  to  say  that  a  similar 
tone  of  melancholy  and  hopelessness,  whether 
in  India  or  in  Palestine,  produced  a  similar 
mental  deterioration.  An  analogous  morbid- 
ity, depressing  the  minds  of  Buddhists  and  of 
Jews,  was  conducive  to  a  sentimentality, 
which,  in  theological  matters  became  mys- 
ticism, and  in  the  department  of  metaphysics 
turned  into  Gnosticism.  That  is  all  I  wish  to 
claim  here.  The  historical  allusions  I  will  be 
permitted  to  forego.  It  is  evident  that  in  In- 
dia provocations  for  melancholy  were  apt  to 
obtain.  Is  not,  in  fact,  the  Buddhistic  faith 
ascetic  and  austere  ?  It  is  permeated  with  a 
spirit  of  abstinence,  finding  contentment  in  the 
practice  of  mortification  and  of  transcendent 
self-conquest.  Palestinian  Gnosticism,  though 
appearing  only  occasionally  on  Jewish  ground 
and  foreign  to  Jewish  habits,  can  still  be  con- 

'  Cf.,  however,  Dr.  D.  Oppenheim,  in  Frankel,  "  Monats- 
schrift  fur  Gesch.  u.  Wissenschaft  des  Judenthums,"  1864, 
"  Uber  den  friihzeitigen  Gebrauch  der  indischen  Ziffern  bei 
den  Juden,"  pp.  231  ff,  pp.  462  ff  ;  1865,  pp.  254  ff,  pp.  376  ff. 
Also  Dr.  S.  Back,  in  "  Ben  Chananjah,"  I.,  1858  ;  "  Inder 
und  Hebraer,"  pp.  257  ff,  354  ff,  400  ff,  442  ff,  494  ff.  Dr.  J. 
Perles,  "  Rabbinische  Agada's  in  looi  Nacht  "  ;  in  Frankel 
"  Monatsschrift  "  Jahrg.  1873  ;  Dr.  S.  Back,  "  Die  Fabel  in 
Talmud  u.  Midrasch,"  in  Jahrg.  1875,  76,  80.  81,  83,  84,  and 
Dr.  M.  Gaster,  "  Beitrage  zur  vergleichenden  Sagen-  und 
Marchenkunde,"  Jahrg.  1880,  '81. 


1 5  2      Foreign  Elements  in  Jtidaism. 

sidered,  like  the  Buddhistic,  a  natural  conse- 
quence of  similar  circumstances,  which  called 
forth  a  strain  of  sadness  and  of  mysticism. 
The  distressing  conditions  because  of  which 
the  pious  Jews  risked  their  lives  and  submit- 
ted to  torture,  constrained  them  to  seek  for 
hope  and  encouragement  within  themselves. 
That  there  is  a  touch  of  foreign  influence  in 
the  post-biblical  phase  of  Judaism  will  be 
more  evident  upon  a  better  acquaintance  with 
the  sources.'  The  very  name  of  one  of  the 
most  prominent  sects  of  the  Gnostics,  the  Oph- 
ites or  Naasites,  offers  a  significant  hint.    The 

'  For  instances  of  Persian  influence  in  the  origin  of  the  Es- 
senes,  vid.  Hilgenfeld  in  his  "  Zeitschrift,"  1867,  p.  97  seqq., 
where  he  seeks  to  prove  that  not  only  Parseeism  but  also  Bud- 
dhism have  exercised  material  influence  upon  the  formation 
of  the  sect,  vid.  I.  c,  1868,  p.  343,  segq.,  and  1871,  p. 
50  seqq.  In  his  later  publications  Hilgenfeld  admits  only 
Persian  influence,  "  Zeitschrift,"  Jahrg.  1882,  p,  299  ; 
"  Ketzergeschichte  des  Urchristenthums,"  pp.  141-149.  Even 
Lightfoot  adopts  secondary  Parsee  influence,  but  with  vir- 
tual Jewish  foundation. —  "St.  Paul's  Epistles  "  (2d  ed.)  pp. 
355-396.  Herzfeld  explains  Esseneism,  as  a  "Judaism  of 
quite  peculiarly  blended  ultra-Pharisaic  and  Alexandrinian 
views  in  alliance  with  Pythagorianism,  and  with  many  rites 
of  Egyptian  priests." — "  Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel,"  Bd. 
III.,  p.  369.  That  Jews  were  familiar  with  Eastern  empires 
and  with  Egypt,  vid.  M.  M.  Kalisch  "  Comm.  to  Leviticus," 
II.,  p.  345.  A  group  of  proverbs  was  transfused  into  the 
Hitopadesa.  Gratz,  "  Geschichte  den  Judn,"  I.,  p.  348,  vid. 
Frankel,  "  Monatsshrift,"  Jahrg.  1875,  p.  540  ff.  Compare 
Jahrg.  1867,  p.  318.     See  further  p.  172-175. 


Foreign  Eleme^tts  in  yudaism.      153 

name  is  derived  from  NacJiash,  and  was  given 
the  sect  mainly  because  the  serpent  played 
an  important  role  amongst  them.  They  as- 
cribed great  veneration  to  the  serpent.  It  is 
well-known  that  the  serpent  is  employed  in 
the  Pentateuch  as  the  originator  of  sin.  It 
was,  according  to  the  view  of  very  primitive 
tribes,  the  prototype  of  evil  and  the  disguise 
of  the  devil.  The  Ophites  ascribed  great 
credit  to  the  serpent  for  having  seduced  the 
first  pair  to  disobedience  against  God.  For 
through  this  disobedience  discretion  was  awak- 
ened in  the  reasoning  of  man  to  the  everlasting 
contest  between  the  spirits  of  good  and  evil. 

Now  the  serpent  worship  is  no  mean  phe- 
nomenon in  the  history  of  religions,  and  is  not 
confined  to  this  one  mystic  sect.  As  Goldziher 
has  it,  the  serpent  worship  is  a  residual  quantity 
of  a  former  mythological  aspect  of  nature.  It 
is  more  especially  a  reminiscence  of  nomadic 
life,  but  in  later  forms  of  religion  the  serpent  is 
detached  from  mythology."  Aside  of  the  period 
of  solar  significance,  the  serpent  appears  so 
often  that  he  must  be  classified  not  according 
to  ethnological,  but  according  to  historical 
stages  of  civilization.^     We  shall  find  later  on 

'  "  Mythology  among  the  Hebrews,"  London,  1877,  p.  225. 

^  Max  M tiller,  "  Origin  and  Growth  of  Religion,"  New 
York,  1S79,  p.  94  and  p.  112  ;  Lubbock,  "  Origin  of  Cilviliza- 
tion,"  p.  264  ff. 


154      Foreig7i  Ele7nents  ill  yudaism. 

this  symbol  of  the  serpent  to  be  more  instruc- 
tive. Here  it  will  suffice  to  refer  to  serpent 
worship  solely  in  connection  with  the  Gnostic 
sect  of  the  Ophites,'  to  corroborate  merely  the 
allusion  we  make  of  a  probable  importation 
from  the  far  East.  For  nowhere  has  the 
application  of  the  serpent-symbol  found  a 
larger  field  than  there  ;  and  it  is  a  notorious 
fact  that  the  serpent  and  staff  of  Hermes  is  a 
Greek  variation  of  the  Yoni  and  Linga  proto- 
type of  India." 

Our  problem  is  to  pursue  the  influences  ex- 
erted by  dualistic  and  trinitarian  systems  upon 
the  monotheistic  faith  of  the  Jews,  and  we 
are  speaking  of  Gnosticism  only  in  so  far  as  it 
is  part  of  this  problem.  Having  seen  that 
there  is  in  the  origin  of  Gnosticism  an  element 
akin  to  the  dualism  of  the  Persians  and  to  the 
henotheism  of  the  Hindus,  we  should  suppose 

'  Jellinek  ("  Beitrage  zur  Geschichte  der  Kabbala,"  Erstes 
Heft.,  Leipzig,  1852,  p.  46)  saj's  the  Ophitic  sect  is  of  Jew- 
ish origin.  The  Leviathan  and  the  Bahamoth  are  typical. 
The  "  eating  of  the  Leviathan,"  which  is  promised  the 
righteous,  means  the  eventual  cessation  of  sin,  which  will  be 
swallowed  up  by  righteousness. 

"The  "  Buendehesh,"  chapter 31,  says  :  "Ahura  will  descend 
to  the  earth,  and  himself  will  offer  the  sacrifices.  Ahriman 
and  the  serpent  will  be  beaten  by  the  strength  of  his  songs 
and  praise,  and  become  helpless  and  weak.  From  that  heavenly 
bridge  to  which  he  will  run  he  will  fall  into  the  deepest  night. 
The  serpent,  corrupt  in  seed,  will  perish  in  the  boiling  metal." 
Cf.  G.  W.  Cox,    "  Mythology  of  the  Aryan  Races,"  p.  363. 


Foreign  Eleme^its  in  yudaism.     155 

that,  if  it  did  find  acceptance  on  the  part  of 
muddled  minds,  it  must  have  been  shunned  by- 
protagonists  in  religious  philosophy  such  as 
Philo  and  the  Jewish  Alexandrinian  school 
were.  Before  them  we  have  no  serious  at- 
tempt at  systematic  treatment  of  Judaism. 
With  Philo  a  new  era  begins  in  Jewish  thought, 
which,  if  it  did  not  bring  about  a  change  in 
Judaism  itself,  at  any  rate  was  influential 
enough  to  alter  the  position  of  Judaism  tow- 
ard the  new  religion.  Now  there  was  every 
reason  for  Philo  to  avoid  Gnostic  elements  ; 
for  these  were  precarious  for  a  dogmatizing 
Platonist,  And  still  Philo  is  the  very  one  to 
whom  the  creation  of  Jewish  Gnosticism  must 
be  ascribed.  Aside  from  the  immediate  serious 
consequences,  which  arose  from  this  unex- 
pected attitude  of  Philo  another  unpleasant 
circumstance  attaches  to  it,  viz.,  that  later 
Kabbalistic  teachings  found  in  Philo  abundant 
justification. 

How  great,  however,  will  be  the  surprise,  if 
it  will  be  discovered  that  they  might  have 
gone  to  a  better  and  to  a  less  distant  source. 
In  fact,  some  of  the  Kabbalists  did.  But  it 
was  Gratz  who  called  attention  to  it,  that 
Gnostic  elements  are  found  in  the  Talmud, 
and  that  the  Mishnaic  period  was  not  as  free 
from  admixture  of  theosophy  as  would  be 
supposed.     He  finds  that  the  Rabbis  living  at 


156      Foreign  Ele7uents  in  Judaism. 

the  time  of  the  Bar  Cochba  war,  in  the  reign 
of  Hadrian,  expressed  themselves  distinctly 
with  respect  to  Gnosticism.' 

Before,  however,  we  proceed  to  treat  of  this 
aberration  in  speculation,  let  us  look  upon 
Talmudic  metaphysics  in  general.  The  pro- 
foundest  problems  are  those  of  Md^ss^  Mer- 
kabah  and  Maasse  Bereshith.  We  might 
term  the  one  metaphysics,  the  other  Tal- 
mudic cosmogony.  The  subject  of  the  latter, 
however,  is  not  only  the  probable  character 
and  order  of  creation,  but  also  abstruse 
reasoning  concerning  the  primitive  substance 
itself  and  concerning  the  relation  of  the  div- 
inity to  it  in  the  act  of  creation.  These 
two  studies  were  carefully  guarded,  and 
looked  upon  as  esoteric,  to  which  but  few 
could  be  admitted.  They  were  to  be  com- 
municated to  few  only,  and  the  motto  was 
the  answer  of  God  to  Moses  :  "  No  man  shall 
see  me  and  live  ! "  ^     Not  that  they  were  es- 

'  "  Gnosticismus  unci  Judenthum,"  p.  8. — In  his  "  Ge- 
schichte  der  Juden,"  vol.  IV.,  p.  94  ff,  he  has  toned  down  his 
emphasis  of  the  proposition.  See  Dr.  I.  M.  Wise,  "  Origin  of 
Christianity,"  Cincinnati,  1868,  p.  354,  who  says  :  "  All  the 
Talmudical  passages,  which  Dr.  Gratz  quotes  as  pointing  to  the 
dualism  of  the  Gnostics  point  with  much  more  certainty  to  the 
Paul  Christians,  and    to  their  dualism  of   Father  and  Son." 

^  "  The  laws  of  chastity  must  not  be  studied  by  a  company 
of  three  alone,  nor  the  cosmogony  by  two  (as  in"Ezekiel," 
I.),  nor  theophany  or  metaphysics  by  one,  except  he  be  wise 
and  discreet." — "  Chagiga,"  13,  a. 


Foreign  Ele^nents  in  yudaism.      157 

sentially  different  from  theology.  The  two 
overlapped  each  other  in  purpose.  Maimonides 
even  identified  them.  The  two  were  gradations.' 
The  Maasse  Bereshith  was  a  source  of  peril  in 
the  hands  of  the  uninitiated  on  account  of  a 
possible  heresy  with  regard  to  the  creation  of 
the  world  by  God  ;  but  did  not  involve,  com- 
paratively speaking,  as  profound  a  quality  of 
metaphysics  as  the  Maasse  Merkabah.  It  was 
in  the  Maass^  Merkabah,  where  the  beaten 
track  of  theology  was  abandoned.  In  the 
study  of  it  many  a  Rabbinic  theosophist  was 
deluded  and  finally  constrained  to  wander 
aimlessly,  having  lost  the  certainty  and  the 
comfort  of  his  faith.'' 

'  "  Chagiga,"  I. ,  "  Maasse  Merkabah  is  a  kind  of  theology  " 
(usually  theosophy). 

^  In  Preface  to  "  More  Nebuchim  "  Maimonides  exhorts 
Joseph  Ibn  Aknin  to  peruse  his  work  alone.  "There  are 
limits  to  the  human  intellect  ;  he  who  undertakes  to  pass  over 
these  is  '  one  who  cuts  off  the  shoots.'  .  .  .  The  phrase, 
'  Elisha  cut  off  the  shoots,'  can  be  explained  in  several  ways. 
One  explanation  is  this:  He  'entered  Paradise,'  means,  he 
proposed  to  speculate  on  divine  matters,  but  not  in  the  proper 
manner.  His  method  was  neither  scientific  nor  clear,  and 
therefore  resulted  in  confusion.  But,  in  Rabbinical  termi- 
nology, theology  is  called  Pardes,  hence  the  paraphrase,  '  he 
cut  off  the  shoots  of  Pardes.'  It  implies  that  he  set  at  nought 
the  limits  of  thought,  and  did  not  attend  to  the  preparation 
proper  to  such  abstruse  study.  He  was  ignorant  of  the  pro- 
paedeutics of  theology.  His  inferences  were  not  tempered  by 
logical  consistency.  Hence  the  lamentable  issue."  Immanuel, 
"Commentary  to  Proverbs,"  in  Dukes,  "Blumenlese,"  Leipzig, 
1844,  p.  269  ;  cf.  "  Kusari,"  III.,  65.    See  also  further,  p.  164. 


158      Foreign  Elements  in  yudaism. 

The  belief  in  the  future  world  was  not  en- 
tirely mystic.  It  was  a  hope,  and  yearning  of 
the  downtrodden  people  for  a  better  condition. 
Roman  domination  and  Greek  sensualism  had 
squandered  the  wealth  of  the  country  and  had 
reduced  the  Jews  to  a  state  of  discomfort  and 
cheerlessness.  The  dogma  of  a  future  life  was 
rather  a  fancy  than  a  metaphysical  assertion. 
All  that  religious  speculation  could  do  for  this 
popular  sentiment  was  to  bring  it  within  the 
scope  of  moral  purity.  It  was  eschatological, 
and  with  it  were  associated  the  doctrines  of  the 
resurrection  of  the  dead  and  the  immortality  of 
the  soul ;  but  these,  not  having  the  affection  of 
the  people,  were  vague  and  less  distinct.  All 
these  conceptions  can  be  traced  to  the  genius 
of  the  Jewish  people  ;  though,  of  course,  it  is 
not  to  be  inferred  from  this  that  these  doctrines 
are  to  be  attributed  solely  to  Judaism. 

But  metaphysicians  soon  had  opportunity  to 
appropriate  these  doctrines,  arising  out  of  the 
heart  of  the  people.  For,  when  they  are  divested 
of  their  sentimentality,  these  doctrines  involve 
philosophic  difficulties,  upon  which  at  any  rate 
the  intellect  delights  to  exercise  itself.  Aside 
from  this  charm,  which  attaches  to  reflection, 
there  was  inducement  offered  soon  to  seek  an- 
swer to  the  perplexing  questions  of  a  future  life. 
The  Oriental  mind  may  be  more  liable  than  the 
Occidental  to  rest  content  in  the  theological 


Foreign  Elements  in  yudaisni.     159 

stage  of  thought,  but  there  are  occasions  even 
for  it  to  become  aware  of  inconsistencies  in 
theology.  Greek  philosophy  is  the  mother  of 
the  science  of  religion.  Science  of  religion  is 
the  methodic  investigation  of  the  character  and 
is  the  synthesis  of  the  doctrines  of  religion. 
About  the  beginning  of  the  present  era, 
Greek  philosophy,  through  the  Eleatic  school, 
became  the  property  of  the  world  in  its  two- 
fold form  of  Stoicism  and  Epicureanism. 
Though  these  did  not  dwell  upon  the  moral 
features  of  the  eschatological  doctrines,  they 
found  the  questions  of  the  beginning  and  the 
end  of  the  world  sufficiently  important  for 
investigation.  One  theme,  however,  occupied 
them  preeminently,  viz.,  the  question  concern- 
ing the  aboriginal  substance  of  the  world,  just 
as  we  find  that  same  problem  in  the  Talmudic 
Maass6  Bereshith.' 

'^Vid.  "Kusari,"  III.  53;  IV.  25;  cf.  Maim,,  "Jessode 
Hathora,"  III.  11.  The  intimacy  wliich  subsisted  between 
Rabbi  Jehuda  Hanassie  and  Marcus  Aurelius  leads  E.  H. 
Plumptre  to  say  that  "  the  teaching  of  the  Pharisees  was,  on 
the  great  question  of  ethics,  all  but  identical  with  that  of  the 
Stoics."  And  Dr.  Bodek  claims  that  he  can  trace  a  Jewish 
influence  in  the  laws  ascribed  to  Aurelius,  and  a  Roman  influ- 
ence in  some  portions  of  the  Mishna.  Consult  E.  H.  Plump- 
tre, "  Marcus  Aurelius  and  the  Talmud,"  in  Contemporary 
Review,  1869,  Vol.  X.,  pp.  81-95,  and  Dr.  Arnold  Bodek, 
"  Romische  Kaiser  in  Jud.  Quellen,"  Leipzig,  1868.  P.  B, 
Watson,  in  his  life  of  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus  urges  that 
this  alleged  intimacy  and  friendship  between  Marcus  Aurelius 
and  Rabbi  is  a  fiction  of  a  late  date.  See  Watson's  "  Marcus 
Aurelius  Antoninus,"  New  York,  1884,  p.  297,  Note  2. 


i6o      Foreign  Elements  in  Judaism. 

True,  Jewish  speculations  were  checked  by 
the  Rabbinical  method  of  deducing  theorems 
and  philosophic  principles  from  the  text  of 
the  Bible.  In  fact  so  important  was  this  meth- 
od that  it  was  a  prime  condition  that  a  verse 
must  be  quoted  in  corroboration  of  an  opin- 
ion. An  opinion  received  validity  only  in  so 
far  as  it  could  offer  such  biblical  authorization 
and  warrant.'  From  this  method  of  exegesis 
it  could  easily  occur  that  rational  indepen- 
dence of  speculation  was  made  subservient 
to  the  authority  of  the  Bible.  It  is  easy  to 
see  that  forced  exegesis  would  be  enlisted  in 
aid  of  metaphysics,  and  a  dangerous  precedent 
given  for  the  interpretation  of  the  Bible.' 

'  On  the  methods  of  Rabbinic  exegesis  consult  Prof.  Dr. 
Mielziner's  articles  on  "  Talmudic  Hermeneutics  :  Syllogism 
and  Analogy,"  in  Hebrew  Review,  1880-81,  pp.  42-53,  and 
1881-82,  pp. 79-94. 

"^  An  interesting  example  of  exegetical  extravagance  is  the 
following:  "  Taanith,"  25,  b,  Rabba  says :  Rediyao  appeared 
to  me,  like  a  calf.  His  station  is  between  the  upper  and  the 
lower  Tehomoth.  This  is  identical  with  the  Persian  Aredtiydo- 
ftira,  the  genius  of  rain,  which  was  probably  transcribed 
Ardoyoh  turoh.  In  the  course  of  time  this  was  mistaken  for 
Syriac  (tauroh),  Chald.  (tur),  Arab,  (tilrun),  =  ox.  Tims  it 
turned  out  to  be  of  the  appearance  of  a  calf  !  But  according  to 
Agadic  practice,  this  had  to  be  verified  by  a  text,  and  this  was 
found  in  "Shir  Hashirim,"  II.  12,  and  Rediyao  was  easily 
made  biblical.  Cf.  A.  Kohut,  "  Ueber  die  jud.  Angelologie 
und  Damonologie  in  ihier  Abhangigkeit  vom  Parsismus." 
Leipzig,  1866  (Abhandlungen,  D.  M.  G.),  Bd.  IV.,  No.  3, 
p.  47.  See,  however,  "Beth  Talmud,"  von  Weiss  und  Fried- 
jnann,"Wien,  1887,  p.  245. 


Foreign  Elements  in  yicdaism.      i6i 

This  gave  pretext  to  Gnostic  methods.  The 
suggestion  from  foreign  sources  being  at 
hand,  the  objection  that  there  is  a  disparity 
between  them  and  revelation  could  early  be 
silenced.  Exegesis  was  a  fruitful  field,  and 
there  was  no  one  without  at  least  so  much 
skill  as  that  he  could  not  allegorize,  and  con- 
vey into  the  word  of  the  Bible  a  meaning 
which  had  to  be  admitted  as  a  likely  and  ac- 
ceptable inference.' 

Let  us  now  take  an  example — a  passage  of 
the  Talmud,  which  has,  perhaps,  more  than  any 
other,  been  subject  of  Haggadic  interpretation, 
and  from  which  much  has  been  deduced.  Mai- 
monides  and  Albo  and  Bachja  ibn  Pakudah  de- 
vote some  attention  to  it.''  "  Chagigah,"  14,  b, 
reports :  "  Four  Rabbis  entered  Pardes,  viz., 
Ben  Asai,  Ben  Soma,  Acher,  and  R.  Akiba. 
Ben  Asai  beheld  and  died  ;  Ben  Soma  lost  his 
reason  ;  Acher  cut  down  the  shoots  ;  and  Rabbi 
Akiba  came  out  in  peace."  The  passage  is 
evidently  a  report,  which,  though  indefinite, 
is  founded  on  a  fact  of  history.  It  is  like- 
wise evident  that  reference  is  made  here  to 
the    fact   that    these    four    Rabbis    turned    to 

'  Note  what  the  Talmud  says,  "  Megilla,"  IV.,  g  :  "  He  who 
employs  the  symbolical  method  in  commenting  upon  the  pro- 
hibited degrees  of  intermarriage,  must  be  silenced."  Kana 
means  to  allegorize  or  symbolize. 

'"' MoreNebuchim,"!.,  32  ;  II.,  30.  Also  "  Ikkarim,  IV., 
33  ;    Choboth  Haleboboth,"  VIII.,  4. 


1 62      Foreign  Elements  iii  Judaism. 

heterodox  and  abstruse  studies  with  varying 
results.  The  historical  basis  of  the  narrative 
and  the  allusion  to  extra-biblical  studies  are 
warranted.  On  the  one  hand  we  have  other 
sources  that  substantiate  a  certain  independence 
of  these  Rabbis  from  the  conventional  mode  of 
thought ;  and  on  the  other  we  need  to  remem- 
ber merely  that  the  infusion  of  foreign  literature 
was  apt  to  be  no  less  disastrous  to  the  equa- 
nimity of  traditional  teachers  than  the  dissemi- 
nation of  Greek  customs  was  ultimately  fatal 
to  Jewish  simplicity  in  conduct. 

Indeed  I  might  be  tempted  to  say  that  a 
certain  amount  of  significance  can  be  attached 
to  this  passage,  and  if  properly  investigated 
it  might  furnish  interesting  data  toward  a  his- 
tory of  dogmatics.  It  is  a  fact  which  will  readi- 
ly be  admitted  as  somewhat  warranted,  that 
dogmatics  and  its  present  legitimate  character 
are  understood  not  simply  by  the  history  of 
its  legitimate  phases,  but  also  by  the  series  of 
heresies,  which  dogmatists  denounced,  i.  e.  by 
hints  and  allusions  of  a  negative  character,  such 
as,  e.  g.,  in  this  passage  of  "  Chagigah." 

These  were  not  mere  Haggadic  speculations. 
It  is  true  the  Talmud  denied  all  practical  sig- 
nificance to  the  Haggada.  The  Haggada  can 
never  be  brought  to  the  aid  of  the  Halacha.' 

■An  Haggadist  cannot  give  permission  or  interdiction  with 
respect  to  civil  or  ritual  law.      He  is  confined  solely  to  homi- 


■     Foreign  Elements  in  yudais'tn.     165 

But  we  wish  to  make  clear  that,  while  the  fixed 
law  was  carefully  guarded  against  outside  in- 
fluence, profound  significance  still  was  attached 
to  metaphysics. 

Properly  speaking,  metaphysics  is  foreign  to 
•biblical  Judaism,  and  it  is  an  evidence  of  foreign 
influence  that  there  occurs  any  metaphysics  in 
the  Talmud.  It  is  undeniably  a  proof  of  the 
presence  of  extraneous  teachings,  when  we  see 
them  gaining  ground  and  ingratiating  them- 
selves into  the  favor  of  Talmudic  teachers.  So 
that  in  dealing  with  Talmudic  speculations  as  a 
part  of  the  history  of  Jewish  thought,  we  shall 
have  to  eliminate  the  foreign  matter  from  the 
originally  Jewish  part  of  this  mysticism. 

Let  us  devote  a  little  attention  to  the  phrase- 
ology of  the  passage.  Its  language  is  symbolic. 
What  is  meant  by  "  entering  into  Pardes  "  is 
not  clear,^  and  it  seems  strange  rhetoric  to  say 
that  Ben  Soma  beheld  and  died,  or  Ben  Asai 
beheld  and  lost  his  reason,  and,  finally,  Acher 
cut  off  the  shoots.     It  is  an  allegorical  passage. 

letics.  Similar  is  the  dispute  between  Rabba  Areka  and  Sam- 
uel. Rab.  says :  ' '  Whoever  learns  of  the  Magi,  is  guilty  of  death, 
i.  e.  is  morally  culpable."  But  Samuel,  more  favorably  in- 
clined to  the  Persians,  answers  :  "  Scriptures  interdict  the 
practical  application  merely,  not  the  theoretic  consideration 
of  non-Jewish  opinions." — Cf.  "Sanhed.,"  68;  "  Aboda 
Zara,"  i8,  a  ;   "  Rosh  Hashana,"  24  ;  "Sabbath,"  75,  a. 

'We  have  seen  Immanuel  Romi's  exegetical  remarks  on  this 
phrase,  p.  157,  note  3,  above. 


164      Foreign  Elements  in  Judaism. 

We  may  assume  the  words  are  intentionally 
chosen.  The  word  Pardes  has  had  many  ex- 
planations. It  has  been  identified  with  Eden.' 
Philo  says  Eden  is  metonymic  of  wisdom.  The 
Gnostics  spiritualized  the  conception  of  Para- 
dise ;  they  had  a  terrestrial,  a  spiritual,  and  an 
ethereal  Paradise,  analogous  to  the  three  kinds 
of  divine  beings.  Pardes  implies  a  state  of 
contemplative  exaltation,  an  ecstatic  condition 
such  as  theosophy  delights  especially  in  at- 
taining. 

Theosophy  differs  from  legitimate  philosophy 
in  this  very  feature.     In  the  former  a  condition 

'  By  way  of  anticipation  let  us  here  give  space  to  the  follow- 
ing etymological  reference  :  Paradise  does  not  come  from 
Sanscrit  paradesa.  Paradesa  means  foreign  country,  an 
enemy's  country  ;  nor  did  the  Hebrew /araVj  ("  Song  of  Sol." 
IV.,  13)  come  from  Persian,  and  thus  indirectly  from  para- 
desa. There  is,  however,  a  word  in  Persian,  viz.  pairi  daeza, 
which  means  circuvivallaiio ,  a  piece  of  ground  enclosed  by 
high  walls,  or  a  garden,  a  park.  Sancrit  root  dih  or  dhih 
(Sansc.  h  =  Zend  z)  to  knead  ;  from  this  comes  Sanscrit  dehi, 
wall  =  rof^o?  (=  wall),  in  Latin  changed  to y%-. ,  ^y&9,  figtilus 
(potter)  7% ;<rrt  (form),  diwd  Jingere  (to  shape).  GoihAC  deigan  to 
knead,  Engl,  dough.  Germ.  Deich. — Greek  TtapddsiOoi  was 
brought  back  by  Xenophon  from  Persia,  vid.  "Anabasis,"  I. 
27,  and  in  the  Septuagint  as  name  of  Garden  of  Eden,  borrowed 
a  third  time  from  Persian,  or  taken  from  Greek  and  indirectly 
from  Xenophon." — Max  Miiller,  "Chips  From  a  German 
Workshop,"  vol.  IV. ,  p.  21-23.  "  Its  modern  Persian  name 
\%  Jirdatisi." — Ibid.  As  to  relation  of  "  Pardes,"  in  the  sense 
of  metaphysics,  to  the  Gnosis,  consult  Friedlander,  "Ben 
Dosa  und  seine  Zeit,"  Prag.,  1872,  p.  61  fl. 


Foreign  Elements  in  yudaism.     165 

of  spiritual  clearness  is  a  momentary  state,  in 
the  latter  a  mental  equilibrium  is  a  habitual 
mode  of  the  philosopher.  So  also  according  to 
Jewish  conception.  The  four  Rabbis  did  not 
meet  with  their  lamentable  fate  because  of  this 
one  venture.  The  incident  has  its  explanation 
in  the  character  of  Judaism  itself. 

We  find  a  quotation  of  R.  Akiba  in  the  com- 
pilation of  Ethical  Sayings.  Rabbi  Akiba  is 
quoted  as  laying  down  this  doctrine  concerning 
Providence:  "  All  is  foreseen  (fore-ordained), 
but  free-will  is  left,  and  the  world  is  judged  in 
a  good  spirit,  and  the  most  important  considera- 
tion is  the  deed"  ("  Aboth,"  III.,  18).  The 
meaning  is  plain.  Rabbi  Akiba  reconciles  fate 
with  free-will,  asserts  that  justice  prevails,  and 
lays  down  this  principle  in  ethics:  AH  depends 
on  the  spirit  and  quality  of  the  deed. 

It  is  tempting  here  to  digress,  and  to  speak 
more  fully  of  this  vexing  problem,  that  a  large 
part  of  our  soul-life  is  pre-determined  ;  of  the 
limitations,  which  are  inherent  in  the  nature 
of  our  body,  and  of  the  conflict  which  obtains 
between  the  necessities  of  the  latter  and  our 
moral  freedom.  But  it  must  suffice  to  notice 
that  Rabbi  Akiba  finds  it  proper  to  say  that 
there  is  a  harmony  between  physics  and  morals, 
that  there  is  nothing  contradictory  between 
the  dictatorialness  of  Providence  and  the  moral 
freedom  of  man. 


1 66      Foreign  Elements  Ui  yudaisin. 

This,  however,  has  been  a  favorite  theme  of 
the  Talmudists.'  There  was  no  special  reason 
for  Rabbi  Akiba  to  teach  it  again  ;  the  less 
so,  when  we  remember  that  his  time  was  the 
least  opportune  for  such  a  teaching.  The  per- 
secutions of  Hadrian  were  in  utter  dissonance 
with  any  ideal  of  ethics.  It  was  a  sad  time — 
most  especially  for  the  teachers.  "These  felt 
most  keenly  the  rigor  of  the  imperial  interdict 
of  all  Rabbinic  learning.  Though  some  con- 
tinued teaching  at  the  risk  of  their  lives,  they 
could  affect  no  lasting  good.  The  church 
disintegrated  early  into  sects,  through  theologi- 
cal dissensions;  misconceptions  were  created 
and  these  invaded  even  the  peaceful  precincts 
of  the  Jewish  schools.  Apologetics  was  a  new 
science,  and  a  busy  art.  The  Rabbis  had  to 
dispute  not  only  with  the  Christians,  but  also 
with  those  who  had  an  uncompromising  hatred 
of  both  Pentateuch  and  Gospels.  Incapable 
of  following  out  the  line  of  religious  thought 
with  persistent  rationalism,  they  were  in- 
tolerent  of  all  received  notions  unless  they 
could  be  made  to  subserve  theosophy.  New- 
doctrines  made  their  way  with  startling 
rapidity,  and  the  Rabbis,  too,  were  not  free 
from  the  danger  of  being  drawn  into  the 
current. 

'  For  instance,  the  parable  of  the  lame  and  the  blind. 
"  Midr.  Rabba,"  Leviticus,  4,  and  "  Sanhedrin,"  91,  b. 


Foreign  Elements  in  yudaism.     167 

Dualism  was  one  of  the  new  doctrines, 
which  made  their  appearance,  and  became  a 
stumbling  block.  The  twofold  nature  of  our 
being,  the  two  kinds  of  exi?tence — present  and 
future — ,  the  disparagement  of  this  life  to 
the  glorification  of  the  spiritual  life  which  is 
to  come  were  its  transcendental  grounds. 

Dualism  in  the  individual  life  has  its  proto- 
type in  the  dualistic  government  of  the  world. 
It  was  a  strange  compromise,  which  allowed 
such  a  departure  from  the  spirit  of  monotheistic 
Judaism.  The  arbitrary  distribution  of  good 
and  evil  in  the  world  is  always  a  serious  objec- 
tion to  the  doctrine  that  there  is  a  moral  order 
in  the  world.  It  is  a  notorious  fact,  that  in  the 
Alexandrian  school  Neoplatonism  was  wedded 
to  Judaism,  however  badly  they  were  matched. 
Logos  and  Demiurgos  were  forced  into 
Mosaism,  despite  the  impossibility  of  ever  re- 
conciling them  with  the  unity  of  God.  Phi- 
Ionian  philosophy  was  accepted  as  Jewish, 
though  it  was  based  on  dualism,  and  later  on 
it  was  developed  in  Alexandria  into  a  system 
of  philosophy. 

Only  because  of  precedents  of  former  for- 
eign importations  into  Judaism,  Neoplatonism 
could  gain  a  foothold  in  Judaism.  Were  it 
not  that  foreign  elements  had  already  crept 
into  Jewish  theology  this  doctrine  of  the 
Logos   and    the    Demiurgos    and    of    Emana- 


1 68      Foreign  Eleme7its  m  yudaism. 

tions  would  have  been  unvarnished  heresy. 
The  allegorization  which  Philo  indulged  in 
with  impunity,  became  the  source  of  a  distinct 
movement  in  religious  thought.  Its  radical 
phase  is  that  which  has  cut  the  Gordian  knot 
of  theology,  by  proclaiming  the  divorcement 
of  Judaism  from  the  Bible  and  regarding  the 
Bible  as  a  simple  record,  in  which  historical 
tradition  mingles  with  mythical  elements. 

The  main  feature  of  Philonian  philosophy 
are  the  oft-mentioned  Logos  and  the  Demiur- 
ges. We  shall  sketch  both  in  a  few  words  and 
try  to  show  that  the  apologetics  of  R.  Akiba 
in  "Aboth,"  III.,  i8,  refer  to  them.  The  God 
of  Philo  is  so  ethereal  and  so  far  removed 
from  relationship  with  perishable  matter,  that 
it  would  be  a  depreciation  of  his  sovereign 
dignity  to  come  into  contact  with  it.  Not  only 
at  the  act  of  creation,  but  also  in  the  government 
of  the  world.  A  series  of  emanated  beings,  dei  ex 
inachind,  helpedout  of  this  difificulty.  Of  these, 
Logos  and  Demiurgos  are  those  which  interest 
us  now.  The  Hyle  {v\if),  the  lowest  of  the 
three  classes  of  beings,  was  delegated  to  be 
formed  by  the  Demiurgos.  The  essential  char- 
acter of  finite  beings  had  its  efficient  cause  in 
this  demiurgic  emanation  of  the  infinitely  pure 
God.  Logos  is  to  Philo  what  the  Eternal  Ideas 
are  to  Plato  ;  both  have  a  real  spiritual  exist- 
ence, and  from  both  proceeds  an  eternal  efflux 


Foreign  Elements  in  yiidaism.     169 

of  entities.  These  realize  and  embody  them- 
selves in  the  physical  world. 

So  far  the  road  is  smooth.  But  when  once 
the  separation  between  God  and  his  em- 
anation in  the  Demiurgos  becomes  so  wide 
that  practically  the  government  of  the  world 
slips  out  of  the  hands  of  God,  and  is  turned 
over  entirely  to  the  Demiurgos,  then,  as  a  mat- 
ter of  logic,  the  ethical  support  is  withdrawn. 
The  activity  of  the  world  becomes  a  ceaseless 
display  of  a  course  of  rightness,  in  which  the 
grace  of  God  has  no  place,  and  no  chance  for 
manifestation.  Added  to  this,  the  Free  Will, 
the  most  sacred  element  of  the  religious  life, 
is  made  impossible.  For  though  there  be  ad- 
mittedly a  higher  content  in  human  life,  the 
pneumatic  or  soul-life  is  through  its  external 
constraint  so  hampered,  nay,  even  predeter- 
mined, that  ethical  considerations  are  pressed 
down  to  brutal  necessity. 

These  difficulties,  serious  enough  to  the  specu- 
lator, involved  troublesome  ones  in  the  sphere 
of  practical  religion.  The  impressive  question 
arose,  of  what  source  is  the  Evil,  and  this  ques- 
tion could  not  be  disposed  of  easily.  To  im- 
pugn the  Demiurgos  with  the  evil  amounted  to 
merely  inverting  the  process  of  ascription.  Philo 
could  not  avoid  stopping  there  ;  but  he  saw 
the  uselessness  of  it.  In  this  question  of 
the  Origin  of  Evil,  the  Demiurgos,  being  a  de- 


I  70      Foreig7i  Elements  in  Judaism. 

preciation  which  God  himself  brought  about  in 
the  interest  of  Creation,  was  very  serviceable. 
Philo  landed  in  an  implied  dualism,  which  was 
saved  from  being  more  heterodox  by  the  de- 
vice of  Emanation.  The  dualism  of  the  Alex- 
andrian school  was  divested,  to  be  sure,  of 
grossness,  but  was  in  the  main  similar  to  the 
dualism  which  the  Jews  in  an  earlier  period  had 
brought  with  them  from  Babylon. 

"All  is  foreseen  and  free-will  obtains."  This 
is  a  plain  statement  against  fatalism.  As  we 
proceed  we  shall  find  that  the  last  part  also 
of  R.  Akiba's  maxim,  viz.,  that  the  criterion 
of  morality  lies  in  the  quality  of  the  deed,  is 
proper. 

For  our  purpose  it  is  not  necessary  to  char- 
acterize the  Alexandrian  school  more  particu- 
larly. We  wish  merely  to  keep  in  view  the 
fact  that  attention  might  be  paid  with  profit 
to  innovations,  and  to  the  infusion  of  foreign 
elements,  which  were  going  on  unnoticed  in  the 
schools  of  the  philosophers,*  as  well  as  in  the 
schools  of  Sura  and  Pumbadita. 

The  social  and  political  condition  of  the 
Jews  of  Babylon  was  good.  They  lived  peace- 
ably and  amicably  amongst  the  Babylonians. 
They  had  a  representative  in  the  national  gov- 

'  Philo  himself  in  adducing  examples  of  asceticism  mentions 
the  Persian  Magi  and  the  Indian  Gymnosophists  (Quod  omnis 
probus  liber,  §  11,  12,  ed.  Mangey,  II.  456,  457).  ^Ev  Uip- 
daii  jiiiv  Tc  Mdyojv,  .  .  .  'Ev 'Ivdoii  da  to  ITaXaidrivtf 
[naij  2vpta  KaXoxayaBiai  ovk  ayovoi  h.t.X. 


Foreign  Elements  in  yudaism.     1 7 1 

ernment, — the  Prince  of  the  Exile.  It  is  a 
very  significant  item  for  us,  who  are  consider- 
ing the  innovation  of  religious  matters,  that 
there  was  intimate  personal  contact  between 
Jews  and  Babylonians,  for  intimacy  induces 
imitation/  It  is  true,  when  Magian  practices 
.became  dominant  the  toleration  ceased  and 
the  Jews  were  given  less  freedom  in  religious 
matters.  Rabba  Bar  Bar  Ghana,  when  the 
fire-priests  broke  suddenly  into  his  room  and 
snatched  away  his  lamp,  while  he  was  lying 
on  his  sick-bed,  exclaimed:  "Most  merciful 
God,  if  thou  dost  not  take  me  under  Thy  pro- 
tection, grant  me  at  least  the  protection  of  the 
Romans  !  "  "^  They  had  to  endure  much  oppres- 
sive treatment ;  but  it  was  harassing  more 
than  interdictive,  and  had  its  cause  more  in 
the  zeal  of  the  Magi  to  prevent  the  desecra- 
tion of  the  holy  element,  rather  than  interfere 
with  the  devotees  of  other  faiths  in  matters  of 
conscience,  and  in  no  sense  to  force  their  con- 
version to  the  fire-religion.' 

'  Haug  maintains  even  that  Ahura  Mazda  is  thought  of  as 
monotheistic.  Zoroaster  taught  a  monotheistic  religion  and 
a  dualistic  philosophy. — "Essays  on  the  Sacred  Languages 
and  Writings  of  Parsees,"  p.  300. 

*"Gittin,"  17,  a. 

^,Thus  the  Maubads  would  rush  into  Jewish  houses  and 
smother  the  fire  on  the  hearth,  take  with  them  the  glimmering 
coals  to  restore  the  desecrated  fire  on  the  common  fire-place. 
Cf.  "Vendidad,"  Fargard,  VIII.,  251  ff.,  transl.  by  James 
Darmsteter,  "  Sacred  Books  of  the   East,"  Vol.    IV.,  p.  112. 


I  72      Foreign  Elements  in  ytidaism. 

The  popular  mode  of  life  during  the  Baby- 
lonian period  exerted  a  large  influence  upon 
the  Jews.  This  appears  clearly  in  many  pas- 
sages of  the  Midrash  and  in  the  Haggadic 
portions  of  the  Talmud,  in  which  mention  is 
made  of  mantics  and  miraculous  cures,  super- 
stitions, astrology,  etc.  Of  course  the  native 
disposition  toward  monotheism  asserts  itself  on 
many  occasions.' 

There  are  many  reminiscences  of  the  Magian 
influence  on  Judaism,  The  ceremonial  of  the 
fire-worship  was  elaborate.  Their  altar  was  car- 
ried about,  and  having  placed  fire  upon  it,  it  was 
borne  about  on  poles  for  public  adoration.  No- 
tice our  ark  and  its  staves  in  the  rings,  carried 
by  the  priests.  Two  or  three  Magi  watched  this 
fire  day  and  night,  so  that  it  might  not  be  ex- 

•  E.  g.  "  Joma,"  96,  b.  "  The  Jews  cried  to  God."  Rab 
says  :  "  They  cried  :  '  Woe,  woe,  is  it  not  Satan  (the  evil  de- 
sire) who  destroyed  the  temple,  burned  the  sanctuary,  killed  the 
pious  ones,  and  drove  the  Israelites  out  of  their  land,  and  who 
still  raves  in  our  midst  !  Thou,  O  Lord,  didst  give  him  to  us, 
so  that  we  should  have  the  reward.  We  desire  not  the  reward.' 
Then  a  scroll  fell  from  heaven,  upon  which  was  inscribed  : 
'  The  seal  of  God  is  Truth.'  Then  they  fasted.  Satan  was 
put  into  their  power.  But  the  prophet  said  to  them  :  '  If  you 
kill  him,  the  world  will  be  destroyed.'  They  held  him  cap- 
tive for  three  days  ;  and  there  was  not  a  fresh  egg  to  be  had 
in  all  Palestine.  And  so  they  were  in  a  dilemma  :  If  they  kill 
him,  the  permanence  of  the  world  is  endangered.  To  implore 
the  half  of  evil  only  (i.  e.  of  chastity  only)  was  not  practicable. 
For  heaven  deals  not  in  halves.  They  blinded  him  and  let 
him  go." 


Foreign  Elements  in  Judaism.     1 73 

tinguished.  Notice  our  Anshe  Maamad,  and 
later  on  the  Ner  Tamid.  It  was  considered  a 
great  calamity  when  that  fire  was  accidentally 
extinguished  ;  and  it  was  purposely  extin- 
guished at  the  death  of  the  king  to  exemplify 
symbolically  the  lamentable  occurrence.  The 
festivals  were  :  The  New  Year's  day  in  the 
spring-equinox.  The  year  had  360  days  with 
five  supplementary  days.  Some  believed  that 
the  New  Year's  day  was  instituted  as  a  memo- 
rial of  creation.  Recollect  the  discussion  con- 
cerning Nissan  and  Tishri  ("  Rosh  Hashana  "  8, 
a  ;  10,  b;  27,  a).  Their  laws  of  family-life  were 
instituted  with  a  view  to  keeping  the  tribe 
pure.  There  are  the  two  kinds  of  unclean- 
liness  among  the  Persians,  analogous  to  the  first 
and  second  Rabbinical  degrees  of  uncleanliness. 
There  obtains  even  a  practice  like  that  of  the 
water  of  the  Sotah.  Ritually  many  analogous 
features  occur,  down  to  the  offering  of  a  prayer 
of  praise  during  the  year  of  mourning,  similar 
to  the  Kaddish. 

The  Sh'ma  and  the  benediction  before  it  were 
recited  in  the  temple  early  in  the  morning  at 
the  break  of  day.  The  first  benediction  at  the 
morning  prayer  was  "  Yozer  Or."  At  the 
break  of  day  it  was  the  duty  of  the  Persians  to 
recite  the  "  Hos  Banim,"  beginning  :  Praise  to 
thee,  morning  dawn.  The  beautiful  morning 
dawn  we  praise  ! — "Yagna,"  X. :  at  the  begin- 


1 74      Foreign  Elements  in  yudaism. 

ning  of  the  morning  dawn  we  praise  thee. 
So  also  benedictions  for  food,  and  at  behold- 
ing exceptional  phenomena,  are  to  be  found 
among  the  Persians. 

A  strange  phenomenon  on  Jewish  soil  is  the 
peculiar  observances  with  respect  to  the  sun. 
Epiphanius  informs  us  that  the  Ossians  united 
with  the  Sampsitae,  i.  e.  adorers  of  the  sun. 
Evidently  a  remark  that  means  that  there  was 
a  joint  worship  of  the  sun.  So  also  both  Jews 
and  Persians  turned  toward  the  sun  at  prayer, 
and  even  in  most  private  conduct  were  on  their 
guard  lest  they  should  commit  any  impropriety 
toward  the  orb  of  light.' 

Gratz  and  Herzfeld  already  admitted  that 
the  influence  of  Parsismus  upon  Judaism  was 
considerable.^  The  Talmud  makes  a  bold  front 
of  it,  saying  :  "  The  names  of  the  angels  (also 
of  the  months)  were  brought  from  Babylon."  * 

'  Notice  reminiscences  of  sun-worship  in  "  Sukka,"  V.,  4  ; 
"  Jalkut  Shimeoni,"  106  ;  "  Baba  Bathra,"  16,  b  ;  "Bereshith 
Rabba,"  68  ;  Ibid.,  22  ;  "Beth  Hammidrasch,"  ed.  Jellinek, 
Wien,  1873,  v.,  p.  40.  Cf.  Goldziher,  "  Mythology  among 
the  Hebrews,"  in  many  places.  Compare  "  Berachoth,"  26, 
a,  and  "  Tosifta  Joma,"  II.,  b.  Notice  especially  :  Rabbi 
Shimeon  ben  Lakish  says:  "The  Fathers  are  the  '  Merka- 
bah.'  "     It  is  a  succinct  statement  of  the  solar  theory. 

'  "  Geschichte  der  Juden,"  Vol.  II.,  b,  p.  415.  "  Ge- 
schichte  des  Volkes  Israel,"  Braunschweig,  1847,  p.  187. 

^  "  Talm.  Jerus.  Rosh  Hashono,"  ed.  Krotoschin,  p.  56,  b  ; 
"  Midrash  Rabba,"  Gen.  48,  9. —  Vid.  Kohut's  work,  Z.  D. 
M.  G.,  1866,  vol.  IV.,  No.  3. 


Foreig7i  Elements  in  yudaism.     1 75 

This  refers  not  only  to  the  names,  but  to  the 
meaning,  and,  to  a  large  extent,  to  the  essential 
content  of  demonology.  So  are  also  the 
eschatological  doctrines,  especially  the  doctrine 
of  resurrection,  borrowed  from  Iranism.'  The 
analogy  of  the  Zend  Avesta  and  the  Bible  and 
Talmud  is  so  great  that  Schorr  thought  to 
deduce  almost  the  entire  biblical  and  Talmudi- 
cal  teachings  concerning  the  Messiah,  future 
life,  etc.,  from  the  Zend  Avesta.^ 

This  analogy  was  also  noticed  by  Rabbi 
Akiba,  and  hence  his  apologetics.  He  felt 
himself  called  upon  to  re-assert  that  Provi- 
dence is  supreme,  that  there  is  no  struggle 
between  good  and  evil,  that  the  world  is 
governed  in  a  benevolent  spirit.  There  is  a 
substantial  content  in  human  life;  man  is  not 
the  helpless  victim  of  fate.  "  Rabbi  Akiba 
went  out  in  peace."  '     Rabbi  Akiba  inveighs 

'  Windischmann,  "  Zoroastrische  Studien,"  p.  231  ff.,  and 
Spiegel,  "  Iranische  Alterthiiner,  p.  158  ff. 

■•'  "He-Chaluz,"  Jahrgang  VIII.     Frankfurt,  a.  m,  1869. 

*  In  "Aboth,"  III.,  17,  Akiba  says  :  "Wisdom  limits  it- 
self. It  knows  how  and  when  to  keep  silent  "  (literally,  the 
fence  of  wisdom  is  silence).  This  Jellinek  declares  to  have  a 
twofold  meaning  :  The  one  is  the  practical  and  ethical,  the 
other  is  Ophistic.  In  the  realm  of  the  spirit  the  first  mani- 
festation, through  creation,  is  silence  ;  the  second,  wisdom  ; 
but  the  second  was  encompassed  by  the  first  in  mystic  signs, 
such  as,  for  example,  the  serpent.  The  sentence  has  thus  a 
felicitous  turn.  See  "  Beitrage  zur  Geschichte  der  Kabbala," 
Erstes  Heft,  Leipzig,  1852,  p.  46  ;  also  Friedlander,  "Ben 
Dosa,"  p.  73. 


176      Foreign  Elements  in  Judaism. 

against  the  mysticism  of  his  time.  "  When 
you  come  to  the  pure  spot  of  marble,  say  not : 
*  Water,  water  ! '  for  the  lying  tongue  hath  no 
enduring  !  "  Cosmological  theories  were  a 
favorite  play  of  the  Gnostics.  Akiba  protests 
against  the  mystic  account  of  creation,  and 
against  the  deification  of  the  hylic  principle. 

The  happy  mean,  to  which  practical  ration- 
alism always  reverts,  is  also  here  the  refuge 
of  Rabbi  Akiba.  It  is  a  credit  to  his  wisdom 
that  under  the  burden  of  the  Halacha,  and 
under  the  precarious  trend  toward  schisms 
within  Judaism  in  his  time,  he  should  recom- 
mend the  only  course  worth  recommending : 
"  The  law  is  like  two  paths,  one  of  warmth,  the 
other  like  ice.  Which  shall  a  man  choose?  If 
he  prefer  the  first,  it  is  excessive  ;  if  the  latter, 
it  is  also  excessive.  Calamity  threatens  from 
both  sides.  Let  him  choose  the  mean,  and 
walk  thereon." 


ERRATA. 

page    85,  note  2,  instead  of  "  See  the  disciple  regarding  Jesus 

as  a   Hillel  "   read   "See   regarding  Jesus  as  a 

disciple  of  Hillel." 
"      152,  line  3  from   bottom,  instead  of  "  den   Judn  "   read 

"  der  Juden.'' 
"      152,    line    2    from    bottom,    instead  of   "  Monatsshrift  " 

read   "  Monatsschrift." 
159,    note,    third    line,    instead   of    "  Hanassie  "    read 

"  Hanassi." 
"      160,    line   7   from    bottom,    instead  of    "  Agadic  "    read 

"  Haggadic." 


INDEX. 


"Aboth"  III.  i8,  165,  175. 
"  Aboth  de  Rabbi  Nathan,"  72. 
Absolute,  God  is,  23. 
Ahura,  45. 

—  and  the  Serpent,  154,  note. 

—  Mazda  monotheistic,  171,  note. 
"Akedath  Jitzchok,"  quoted,  9,  note. 
Akiba,  165,  ff.,  175. 

Albo,  see  "  Ikkarim." 
Alexandrian  school,    149,  167. 
Amberly,  on  Positivism,  55,  note. 

—  on  emotion  in  religion,  71. 
"  Anshe  Maamad,"  173. 
Apologetics  of  the  Rabbis,  166. 

A  priori  concepts,  44,  note  ;  88,  note. 

Arama,  Isaac,  vid.  "  Akedath  Jitzchok." 

Architecture,  130. 

Areduyao-9ura,  160,  note. 

Ark  and  Persian  altar,  172, 

Arnold,  Matthew,  and  definition  of  God,  60,  note. 

—  —  on  religion  and  culture,  62,  66,  note  2. 

—  —  cited,  98,  note. 
Art  and  civilization,  130,   131. 

Aryan  race,  religion  of,  ace.  to  Max  Miiller,  15,  22. 
Asceticism  and  Christianity,  147. 

Asher's  translation  of  "  Mibchar  Hap'ninim,"  48,  note. 
Aurelius,  Marcus,  see  Marcus. 

B 

Bachja  ibn  Pakudah,  vid.   "  Choboth," 

Back,  cited,  151,  note. 

Baker,  Sir.  Samuel,  quoted,  40. 

Beer,  Dr.  B.,  37. 

"  BenChananjah,"  cited,  151,  note. 

177 


178 


Index. 


Benedictions,  analogous,  among  Jews  and  Persians,  173. 
"  Bereshith  Rabba,"  vid.  "  Midrashr  Rabba." 
"  Beth  Hammidrasch,"  cited,  174,  note  I. 
"  Beth  Talmud,"  160,  note  i. 
Bible,  the  first,  90. 

—     criteria  of  the  worth  of,  100. 
Biblical  literature,  66,  note  2. 
Bodek,  on  Aurelius  and  Judaism,  159,  note  I. 
Brugsch,  on  Ankh,  60,  note  i. 
Buddha,  45,  83,  95. 
Buddhism,  148. 

—  and  Gnosticism,  150. 

—  characterized,  151. 
Buddhists,  151. 
"Bundehesh,"  quoted,  154,  note  2. 

C 

Catechism.  70. 

Chagigah  I.,  quoted,  157,  note. 
—        14,  b,  quoted,  161,  ff. 
Chamai  Gaon,  on  mtuition,  5,  note. 
Character  the  criterion  of  religion,  112. 
"  Choboth  Haleboboth,"  cited,  161,  tiote  2. 
Christianity  and  Judaism,  84,  85,  86. 

—  origin  of,  146,  147. 

—  mysticism  in,  149. 

Christian  period,  early,  Palestine  during,  146. 
Christians,  persecutions  of,  45,  note  i. 

—  attend  pagan  and  Jewish  services,  46. 
Church  discouraged  personal  inquiry,  12. 
Civilization,  127. 

Colenso,  cited,  97,  note  i. 
Comte's  Positivism,  55  note. 
Conduct,  responsibility  for,  121,  144. 
Conscience,  118,  121. 

—  history  of,  119. 

Consensus  gentium,    4,    note   1.     According    to    Kaufmann, 

Wise,  Nachmanides,  Ibn  Gabirol,  Abraham  ibn  Ezra. 
Conventional  judgments,  128,  129. 
Cooperation  of  man  with  Providence,  121. 
Cosmogony,  156. 
Cox,  G.  W.,  cited,  154,  note. 
Creation  of  man,  26,  27. 
Creed  and  deed,  36. 
Culture,  124, 

—  and  religion,  10,  34,  49,  62. 

—  Thora  means,  3,  7wte 


Index.  1 79 

D 

Dancing,  art  of,  133. 
Darmsteter  on  Judaism,  144. 

—  Vendidad,  171,  note  3. 

Deed  and  creed,  36,  70,  112. 

—    responsibility  for,  I2I,  128,  129,  144,  170. 
Delitzsch,  cited,  85,  note  2. 
Demiurgos,  167,  168,  169. 
Devas,  46. 

Doctrine,  unfailing  dissemination  of,  131. 
Dogmatics,  history  of,  162. 
Dogmatism  in  religion,  55. 
Dramatic  character  of  events,  16,  note  2. 
Dualism,  if) 7,  170. 

—  Persian,  149. 

—  —        influence  of,  172. 
Dukes,  cited,  157,  note. 

E 

Ebionites,  149. 

"  Ecclesiastes,"  vii.  29,  59,  note. 

Emanations,  168. 

Emerson  on  religion,  42,  63. 

"  Emunah"  defined,  43. 

"  Emunoth  Wedeoth."  vid.  Saadja. 

Epicureanism,  159. 

Esoterism  in  Talmud,  156. 

Essences  and  Persian  influence,  152,  note. 

Ethics  and  trancendentalism,  no. 

—     and  universal  law,  126,  127. 
Exegesis  and  speculation  among  Rabbis,  160  and  note. 
Experience,  34,  122. 
Evil  in  religion,  45. 
—    origin  of,  169. 
Ezra,  Abraham  ibn,  on  intuitions,  4,  note  i. 


Fairbairn  on  religion  as  a  science,  61,  note. 
Faith  defined,  43,  note  2. 

—    and  reason,  48,  note. 
"  Father  in  Heaven,"  31,  32. 
Fire-worship,  173. 
Frankel,   "  Monatsschrift,"  cited,  37,  note;  148,  note;  151 

note. 


I  So  Index, 


Friedlander,  cited,  164,  note. 

—  transl.  of   "More  Nebuchim,"  cited,  '&'],note; 

88,  note. 
Furst's  "Orient,"  cited,  24. 
Future  life,  40,  158,  175. 


Gabirol,  Salomo  ibn,  on  consensus  gentium,  4  note  i, 

—  —       —     on  microcosm,  37,  note  i. 

—  —       —     on  intuitions,  48,  note. 
Gaster,  cited,  151,  note. 

Gazzali,  9,  note. 

Geiger's  Salomo  ibn  Gabirol,  4,  note. 

—  cited,  85,  7iote  2. 

Genius  and  talent,  contrasted,  81,  85. 

—  and  religious  leadership,  82. 

—  and  survival  of  the  fittest,  83. 

—  and  prophet,  88,  89. 
Gladstone  and  original  sin,  49,  50. 
"  Glauben  "  defined,  43,  note  2. 
Gnostic  sects,  147. 

—      cosmology,  176. 
Gnosticism,  147. 

—  and  Buddhism,  151,  152. 

—  and  exegesis,  161. 

—  and  Philo,  155. 

—  a  sentimentality,  148,  151. 
God  and  man,  affinity  between,  60,  note  2. 

—  as  conceived  in  Judaism,  24. 

—  conception  of,  68. 

—  called  space,  27,  note  2. 

—  —     Father,  31. 

—  and  Providence,  102. 

—  and  law,  60,  note. 

—  and  eternal  activity,  129. 

—  is  benevolent,  50. 

—  and  soul,  36,  note  ;  60,  note  2. 

—  manifest  in  the  beauty  of  the  world,  132,  133. 

—  of  history,  102. 

—  of  Philo,  168. 

—  is  absolute,  23. 

Goldberg,  definition  of  "  Emunah,"  43,  note  2. 
Golden  Rule,  negative  form  of,  107. 

—  —      Kant  declares,  universally  invalid,  107,  note. 
Goldfahn,  cited,  148,  note,  174,  note. 

Goldziher,  quoted,  153. 


Index.  1 8 1 


Gratz,  quoted,  135. 

—  on  "  Min,"  148,  note. 

—  on  Essenes,  152. 

—  on  Buddhism,  174. 

—  finds  Gnostic  elements  in  Talmud,  155. 

—  cited,  174,  note  3. 

Great  men  and  moral  doctrines,  126, 
Greek  philosophy,  159. 
Greeks,  religion  of,  no,  in. 
Gymnosophists,  170,  note. 

H 

Haggada,  162,  and  note. 

—  and  Halacha,  71. 
Halevi,  Jehuda,  quoted,  2,  56,  note. 

—  —        origin  of  religion,  ace.  to,  56,  note. 
"  Halichoth  Kedem,"  quotation  from,  24,  note. 
Hamburger,  cited,  71,  note  2. 

Harrison,  Frederic,  quoted,  36,  note. 
Haug,  quoted,  171,  note. 

—  on  Devas,  46. 

Heart,  seat  of  individuality,  6g,  note. 
Heresies  in  history  of  dogmatics,  162. 
Heresy,  a  charge  made  by  all  sectarians,  6. 
Hermeneutics  of  Rabbis,  160. 
Hero-worship  and  religion,  91,  93. 
Herzfeld  on  Esseneism,  152,  note. 

—  on  Parseeism,  174. 

Hilgenfeld  on  Parsee  and  Buddhistic  influence,  152,  note. 

Hillel  and  Jesus,  S5,  note  2. 

Hindu  influence  on  Judaism,  151,  note. 

History,  complex  and  of  large  compass,  138. 

—  of  mankind,  124. 

—  of  religion,  62. 

—  of  morals,  117. 

—  disciplines,  35. 
Homer,  85. 

"  Hos  Banim,"  173, 
Hyle,  168,  176. 

I 

Ideality  in  religion,  54. 

—  and  practicality,  no. 
Ideals  of  a  nation,  129. 

—     traceable,  130. 
"  Ikkarim,"  cited,  9,  note  j  48,  note  ;  bo,  note ;  74,  note  ; 
note  J  161,  note  2. 


1 82  Index. 


Immanuel  Romi,  on  metaphysics,  157. 
Individuality,  121. 

—  and  prophecy,  contrasted,  89. 

—  and  career,  8. 

—  and  religion,  10, 

—  diversity  of  interpretations  through,  7. 

—  and  genius,  81. 

—  the  test,  84. 
Intuitions,  4,  88. 

—  the  primitive  revelation,  48. 

—  and  pre-natal  existence,  ace.  to  Talmud,  44,  note. 

—  —  —         —  Mendelssohn,  44,  note. 

—  and  spontaneity,  25. 
Intuitive  character  of  religious  truths,  143. 

Israel,  prophets  of,  contrasted  with  those  of  other  nations,  74, 
note. 

J 

"Jalkut  Shimeoni,"  quoted,  59,  note. 

—  —         cited,  174,  note. 
Jehuda  Halevi,  see  Halevi. 

Jellinek,  Adolph,  ed.  Nachmanides,  4,  note. 

—  —       cited,  69,  note ;  98,  note. 

—  on  Ophites,  154,  note. 
"  Jessod  Mora,"  quoted,  5  itote. 

"  Jessode  Hathora,"  68,  note  3,  159,  note. 
Jesus,  83,  85. 

—  and  theosophy,  149. 

—  and  Hillel,  85,  note,  2. 
Jewish  principles,  tested,  48,  note. 

—  Bible,  the  best  effort,  95,  97,  loi,  I02. 

—  conception  of  God,  102. 

—  philosophy,  no  argut>tentum  a  consensu  gentium   in, 

4,  7tote, 

—  temperament,  vivacious,  98,  note. 

—  theology  and  natural  religion,  37. 

—  principles,  test  of,  48,  fiote. 

—  people,  significant  because  of  Judaism,  136,  141. 

—  —       persecution  of,  137,  138. 

—  —       and  genius,  141. 

—  —       racial  characteristics  of,  127. 

—  history  an  experiment,  143. 

—  literature,  universal  teachings  in,  69. 
Jews,  heroism  and  fortitude  of,  136,  145. 

—  persecution  of,  a  discipline,  139,  140. 

—  in  Babylon,  171,  172. 
John  the  Baptist,  149. 


index.  183 

Judaism  and  generic  religion,  25. 

—  animism  and  theology,  37,  note. 

—  and  universal  history,  94,  notf,  103. 

—  and  universal  religion,  145. 

—  conception  of  divine  unity  in,  23. 

—  and  Neoplatonism,  167. 

—  and  natural  religion,  37,  note. 

—  conception  of  Providence  in,  16,  note  2. 

—  and  Christianity,  86. 

—  and  philosophy,  72. 

—  averse  to  catechismal  exactness,  72. 

—  and  universalism,  66. 

—  contrast  between  Judaism  and  philosophy,  55,  note. 

—  history  of,  134,  135. 

—  Darmsteter  on  history  of,  144,  note. 

—  Hindu  importations  into,  157,  note. 

—  Philippson,  on  Judaism  and  the  religious  idea,  142, 

note. 

—  and  inquiry,  48,  note. 

K 

Kabbalistic  teachings  in  Philo,  155, 

Kalisch,  on  foreign  matters  in  Judaism,  152,  note. 

Kant,  on  Golden  Rule,  107,  note. 

Kaufmann,  on  consensus  gentium  among  Jews,  4,  notet 

—  quoted,  24,  note  2. 
Kohut,  quoted,  160,  note. 

—  cited,  174,  note  3. 
Kusari,  quoted,  2,  56,  note. 

—  cited,  80,  note,  157,  159,  note. 
Kuttner,  on  "  Anachi,"  60,  note. 


Law,  contrast  between  moral  and  civil,  39. 

—    display  of,  in  nature,  and  religion,  19,  20. 
Lecky's  "  Hist,  of  Morals,"  quotation  from,  II. 
Leibnitz  and  Mendelssohn,  44,  note. 
Leviathan  and  sin,  154,  note. 
Lightfoot  on  Parsee  influence,  152,  note. 
Literature  and  religion,  96. 

—  is  tentative,  98, 

—  national,  and  national  religion,  94. 

—  —        or  genial,  95. 

—  suggestive  more  than  literal,  gg. 
Logos,  167,  168. 


1^4 


index. 


Lowinsohn,  Germ,  transl.  of   "  Mibchar  Hap'ninim,"  4,  nottt 
Lubbock,  cited,  41,  note ;  153,  note. 

M 

"  Ma'amar  Ho-achduth,"  45,  note. 
Maasse,  Merkabah,  156,  ff.  ;  174,  note  3. 

—  Bereshith,  156,  ff. 
Magi,  170. 

—  fanaticism  of,  171. 

Magian  influence  on  Judaism,  172,  ff. 

Magus,  Simon,  149. 

Mahomet,  84,  95. 

Maimonides,  on  prophecy,  86,  87. 

—  on  revelation,  87. 

—  on  culture  and  morals,  127. 

—  on  the  embodiment  of  the  beautiful,  133,  note. 

—  on  Maasse  Bereshith,  157,  7iote. 

—  "  Iggereth  HaRambam,"  cited,  68,  note  3. 

—  "  Jessode  Hathora,"  68,  note  3. 

—  More  Nebuchim,  quoted,  87,  note,  2  ;  103,  note. 

—  —  —  cited,  48,  note ;  56,  note ;  68, 

note   3;    88,    note   3;    127,  note;    130,  note; 
161,  note. 

—  subjectivity,  emphasized  by,  68. 
Man,  the  embodiment  of  a  Divine  thought,  125. 

—  is  a  microcosm,  37,  note. 
Mandeville  and  Renan,  10,  7iote. 
Manliness,  and  genius,  difference  between,  81. 

—  and  mutuality,  92. 

Man's  kinship  with  the  universe,  27,  and  note  ;  28. 
Marcus  Aurelius,  Plumptre  on,  159,  note. 

—  —         Bodek  on,  159,  note. 

—  —         Watson  on,  159,  note. 
Maubads,  171,  note. 

Mendelssohn,  on  a  priori  concepts,  44,  note. 

—  on  "  Jerusalem,"  103. 

—  on  "  Sache  Gottes,"  ibid. 

—  and  Leibnitz,  44,  note. 
"  Mean,"  The,  176. 
"Mechilta,"  quoted,  63,  note. 

Messianic  time,  ace.  to  Jehuda  Halevi,  2,  note. 

—  teachings.  Hid. 

—  ace.  to  Maimonides,  175. 
Metaphysics,  in  Talmud,  155,  160,  163. 

—  esoteric,  156. 

Meyer,  J.  B.,  defines  talent  and  genius,  82,  note. 


Index.  185 


Michelangelo,  85. 

Microcosm,  37,  note. 

"  Midrash  Rabba,"  Genesis,   13,  note;  26,  note;  27,  note; 

66,  note  ;  68  ;  72,  note  ;  74,  note ;  174, 

note. 

—  —  Exodus,  55,  note  ;  72,  note. 

—  —  Leviticus,  60,  note  2  ;  166,  note. 

—  —  Deuteronomy,  70,  note. 

—  —  Ecclesiastes,  71,  7iote  2. 
Mielziner,  on  Talmudic  hermeneutics,  160,  note. 
Mill,  J.  S.,  on  differentiation  of  conduct,  143,  note. 
"  Min  "  and  Gnostic,  148. 

Miracles  in  history,  144,  145. 
Monotheism,  among  Semitic  races,  16. 

—  in  the  Jewish  sense,  24. 
Morality  of  Jews  instanced,  136. 

—  and  universal  law.  126,  165. 

—  and  religion,  no,  in,  117. 

—  identification  with  the  universal  purpose,  102. 
Moral  life  of  Jews,  145. 

—  precepts,  negative,  107,  108,  109. 
Morals,  a  prime  condition,  121. 

—  and  character,  125. 

—  and  culture,  127,  128. 

—  and  natural  sciences,  125. 

—  history  of,  democratic,  117,  llS,  I20. 
Moralness,  progress  in,  and  Providence,  120. 

—  and  theology,  115,  116. 
More  Nebuchim,  see  Alaimonides. 

—  —  Narboni's  commentary  to,  68,  note  3. 

Moses,  84,  85,  87,  94. 

—  deprecated,  83,  note. 
Miiller,  Max,  cited,  153,  note. 

—  —     ethnical  distinctions,  15,  23. 

—  —     quoted,  15,  31,  note ;  43,  70",  note ;  96,  note. 
Mysticism  and  melancholy,  151. 

—  in  early  Christian  period,  146. 

—  and  rationalism,  147. 

—  common  to  many  religious  movements,  148,  149. 
Mythology  and  serpent  worship,  153. 

N 

Naasites,  152. 

Nachmanides,  on  original  concepts,  4,  note, 
Narboni's   commentary   to    "More    Nebuchim"    cited,    68, 
note   3. 


1 86  Index. 


Nation's  ideals,  130. 
Natural  religion,  33,  37,  43. 

—  sciences  and  morals,  125. 
Nature,  125. 

—  display  of  law  of,  and  religion,  19,  20. 

—  suggestive,  29. 
Nazarites,  152. 

Neoplatonism  and  Judaism,  167. 
Ner  Tamid,  173. 

New  Year's  day,  173. 

Nissim,  Rabbenu,  quoted,  13,  note  2. 

Nissan  and  Tishri,  173. 

O 

Oppenheim,  cited,  151,  note. 

Origin  of  religion,  in  priestly  impositions,  10,  note. 
—  —         ace.  to  Jehuda  Halevi,  56,  note. 

Original  sin,  49, 


Palestine  during  early  Christian  period,  146, 
Pardes,  157,  7iote ;  161,  163,  164,  note, 
Parker,  Theodore,  quoted,  7,  note. 
Perles,  cited,  151,  note. 
Persecution  of  Jewish  people,  137,  138. 
Persian  dualism,  149. 

—  customs,  analogy  of,  and  Jewish,  172-173. 

—  polemics,  46. 
Personal  conduct,  121,  144. 

—  religion,  75. 

"  Pesikta,"  quoted,  75,  note. 

Pessimism  of  primitive  man,  50. 

Pfleiderer,  quoted,  18,  note. 

Pharisees  and  Stoics,  159,  note. 

Philippson,  on  Judaism  and  the  religious  idea,  48,  note ;  142, 

note. 
Philo,  150,  167,  fl.,  175. 
Philosophy  and  religion,  70. 

—         and  Rabbinism,  71. 
Plato,  the  "  Ideas"  of,  168. 
Plumptre  on  Pharisees  and  Stoics,  159,  note. 
Poetry  in  religion,  27,  28. 
Polemics,  sectarian,  45,  46. 
Positivism,  Amberly  on,  55,  note. 
Practice,  144. 
Prayers,  analog}'  of,  among  Jews  and  Persians,  173. 


Index.  187 


Pre-natal  existence  of  soul,  44,  note. 

Priestly  impositions,  10,  note. 

Priests,  representativeness  of,  78,  note. 

—  and  prophets,  their  mutual  antagonism,  76,  77. 
Primitive  man,  pessimism  of,  50. 

—  —     does  not  speculate,  33. 

—  —      view  of  future  life,  41. 

—  —      religion  of,  42. 

—  —      endowed  with  latent  capacities  for  best,  75, 

note. 

—  —      and  his  ingenuous  questions,  II. 

—  —      not  servile,  3,  note. 

—  —      idealism  of,  26. 

—  —     very  serious,  30. 

—  —      personified,  31,  32. 
Principles  of  religion,  axiomatic,  143. 
Prophecies,  the  starting-point  in  sects,  73. 
Prophecy,  normal  event  of  mentality,  69. 

—  and  character,  113. 

—  Maimonides  on,  86,  87. 

—  condition  of,  in  Talmud,  87,  note. 
Prophets,  definition  of,  78,  79. 

—  and  genius,  88,  89. 

—  and  priests,  76,  77. 

—  of  Israel  and  of  the  nations,  74,  note, 

—  Dr.  Wise  on,  88,  note. 
Providence  and  God,  60,  note  2  ;  102. 

—  and  progress  in  moralness,  I20. 
Providential  action  twofold,  138. 
Psychology  in  religion,  5,  68. 

—  in  prophecy,  89,  note. 
Publicity  and  truth,  63,  note. 

R 

Rabba  bar  bar  Ghana,  171. 

Rabbinism  and  philosophy,  71. 

Racial  characteristics  of  Jewish  people  explicable,  127. 

Raphael,  85. 

Rationalism  and  Mysticism,  147. 

Reason  and  faith,  48,  tiote. 

Religion  and  science,    123. 

—  and  practice,  132. 

—  and  experience,  142. 

—  an  art,  132. 

—  the  final  and  unified  life,  133. 

—  history  of,  33,  150. 


Index. 


Religion   is  the  wisdom  of  history,  6i. 

—  and  philosophy,  70. 

—  psychology  in,  5. 

—  and  culture,  62,  63. 

—  and  theology,  58,  5g. 

—  Scholasticism  in,  53. 

—  of  savage,  30,  42. 

—  is  optimistic,  53,  54. 

—  is  elementary,  64. 

—  is  independent  of  prophetic  legitimization,  74. 

—  each  accountable  for  quality  of,  i. 

—  origin  of,  ace.  to  Renan,  10. 

—  origin  of,  ace.  to  Mandeville,  10. 

—  conception  of,  in  correspondence  with  culture,  10. 

—  and  ritual  contrasted,  17. 

—  impressions  of  physical  and  moral  laws  conjoined 

in,   19. 

—  of  primitive  man  normal,  33,  34. 

—  defined,  43,  note  2. 
Religious  principles,  axiomatic,  143. 

—  leaders,  94,  95. 

Renan,  quoted,  10,  note;  cited,  85,  note  2. 
Responsibility,   121. 
Revelation,  51,  52. 

—  on  Sinai,  Maimonides  on,  87. 

—  and  sin,  48. 
Reville  quoted,  20,   22,  52. 

Ritual,  analogy  of,  among  Jews  and  Persians,  172,  173. 
Romans,  morals  and  religions  among  the,  no. 


Saadja's  "  Emunoth,"  48  note. 

Sampsitfe,  174. 

Satan,  172  note. 

Schorr,  cited,  175. 

Science  of  religion  defined,  159. 

—  —       —       makes  tolerant,  2. 

—  —       —       data  of,  certain,  3. 

—  —        —       not  sacrilegious,  13,  14. 

—  —       —       influence  of  its  study,  12S 

—  —       —       and  theology,  61. 
Secular  knowledge,  123. 
Sectarianism,  6,   65. 

Sectarian  polemics  explicable,  45. 
Sects,  denned,  40. 

—  valid,  43. 


Index.  189 


Sects  necessarily  polemic,  45,  46. 
Semitic  religions,  ace.  to  Max  Mtiller,  15. 

—  poetry,  excellence  of,  28  note. 
Serpent-worship,  153  ff. 

Serpent  and  Ahura,  154,  note. 

Sh'ma,  173. 

Sinaitic  revelation,  87,  88. 

Sin  and  revelation,  48. 

Siphri,  quoted,  60,  note  2. 

Sohar,  quoted,  68,  85. 

Sotah,  173. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  quoted,  40,  41. 

Spiegel,  cited,  175. 

Spiritual  independence  of  man,  60. 

Soul,  44,  note ;  68,  note  3. 

St.  Cyprian,   53. 

Steinthal,  quoted,  9,  note. 

Stoics  and  Pharisees,  159,  note. 

—  Plumptre  on,  ibid. 
Subjectivity  in  prophecy,  g,  68,  89. 
Sun-worship  in  Talmud,  174  note. 


Talent,   defined  by  Meyer,  82  note, 

—  —       —  Wise,  ibid. 

Talmud,  cited,  3,  note ;  36,  note  2  ;    41,  note  ;  44,  note ;  71, 

note  2;  72,  note;  83,  note  ;  87,  note  ;  88,  7iote ;  89,  note ; 

105,   note  J    107,   note;  109,   note;  no,   note;  163,    note; 

156,    note;  160,   note;  161,    note;  163,    note;  166,    note; 

172,  note ;  173  ;  174,  note  i. 
Talmud,  has  no  theology,  70. 

—  philosophy  of,  practical,  69. 

—  and  Gnostic  sects,  147,  155. 
Talmudic  metaphysics,  156. 

—  —  esoteric,  156,  note,  157. 

—  —  foreign,   163. 
"Tal  Pijoth,"  quoted,  75,  note. 
Tanchuma,  quoted,  55,  note. 
Theology  and  Religion,  58,  59. 

—  and  moralness,  115,  116. 

—  and  science,  61. 

—  history  of,  63. 

—  and  natural  religion,  37,  note. 
Theory  and  practice,  144. 
Theosophy  at  origin  of  Christianity,  149. 

—        and  philosophy,  164,  165. 


1 90  Index. 

Thora  means  progress  in  culture,  3,  note. 
Thought  and  nature,  125. 
Truth,  publicity  of,  63,  note, 

U 

Universal  history  and  Judaism,  134,  145. 
Universal  religion  is  no  compromise,  12,  13, 

—  —       spontaneity  in,  34,  35. 

—  —      systematized  and  organic,  36. 

—  —       justifies  all  events,  44. 

—  —       emancipated  state  of  soul  in,  67. 

—  teachings  in  Jewish  literature,  69. 

V 

Vendidad,  cited,  175,  note. 

Vice  and  virtue,  proportions  of,  109,  note. 

Virtue,  125. 

W 

Watson,  on  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Rabbi  Jehuda,  159,  note. 

Wellhausen,  cited,  97,  note. 

Windischmann,  cited,  175,  note. 

Wise,  I.  M.,  on  consenstis  gentium,  4,  note. 

—  —       on  religious  intuitions,  47. 

—  —       on  Gratz's  view  of  Gnosticism,  156,  note. 

—  —       on  history  of  Jews,  142. 

—  —      on  prophets,  88,  note. 
Wordsworth,  quoted,  44. 


Ya9na,  quoted,  173. 

—       cited,  46,  note. 
Yehuda,  vid.  Jehuda. 
"  Yessod,"  vid.  "  Jessod." 
"  Yezirah  Sepher,"  69,  note. 
Yozer  Or,  173. 


Zend  Avesta,  174. 
Zoroaster,  83,   171,  note. 


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